SOLUTION

A class is said to be a global class, if its definition occurs outside the bodies of all functions in a program.

SOLUTION

A local object can be accessed only within the function body and it cannot be used outside the function. A local object can be created from both types: local and global.

SOLUTION

The global object is available to all the functions in the program, i.e., this object can be used anywhere in the program. A global object only is declared using a global class type.

SOLUTION

The public member functions of a class can be invoked only by using an object of that class using a dot operator. However, a member function of the same class can call another member function of the same class using its name. We do not need an object to call them. When a member function is called by another member function, it is known as nesting of member functions.

SOLUTION

Accessor functions are those member functions that allow us to access the data members of an object. However, accessor functions cannot/do not change the value of data members.

SOLUTION

Interface generally refers to an abstraction that an entity provides of itself to the outside. This separates the methods of external communication from internal operation and allows it to be internally modified without affecting the way outside entities interact with it, as well as provide multiple abstractions of itself.

SOLUTION

A class is said to be global class if its definition occurs outside the bodies of all functions in a program, which means that object of this class type can be declared from anywhere in the program.

SOLUTION

A constructor is a special member function which will construct an object with user-defined values whenever object is created. It is a special method used in OOP, which puts the object member into a valid state.

SOLUTION

Abstraction is focusing on the details of an object leaving behind the implementation details, which are not essential.

SOLUTION

Manager functions are member functions with specific functions (e.g., constructors and destructors) that deal with initializing and destroying class instances.

SOLUTION

Inheritance is the property by which derived class inherits the characteristics and properties of the base class and thus reuse it.

SOLUTION

Self–referential structures are the structure containing a member that is a pointer to the same structure type. Self–referential structures are useful for forming lined data structures such as linked lists, stacks and trees.

SOLUTION

The inline functions are a C++ enhancement designed to speed up programs. The coding of the normal functions and inline functions is similar except that inline functions' definitions start with the keyword inline. An inline function definition should be placed above all the functions that call it.

SOLUTION

Whenever the function is invoked the same function code is inserted in the program for every function call, so memory is wasted.

SOLUTION

There are 3 access labels provided by the class: private, protected and public.

SOLUTION

Inline functions improve performance by avoiding the overhead of the call itself but their overuse can lead to negative performance and make programs slower.

SOLUTION

An inline function is a function whose code gets inserted into the caller’s stream code. The functions should be inlined only when they are small. There is no point inlining large functions as there would be heavy memory penalty.

SOLUTION

Any member having private keyword is accessible to members within the class.

SOLUTION

There are two kinds of members in a class: data members and member functions. Data members are exactly like the variables in a structure and member functions act on data members in the class.

SOLUTION

Member access specifiers like private, protected and public can appear any number of times in a class and they are always terminated with a colon (:).

SOLUTION

There is no need to return a value, as the result gets stored in c3 when the function is called.

SOLUTION

By overloading operators like +,*,-which are supposed to work on standard data types like ints, floats etc, they can work differently. Example, by overloading + operator it can be used to add two strings which is not possible in c.

SOLUTION

In C++, we have an option to define default values for arguments that are not passed when the function call is made. The compiler uses the prototype information to build a call, not the function definition.

SOLUTION

A class may be declared within another class. A class declared within another class is called a nested class. The outer class is known as enclosing class and the inner class is known as nested class.

SOLUTION

The new operator, when used with the pointer to a data type, a structure, or an array, allocates memory for the item and assigns the address of that memory to the pointer.

SOLUTION

A constant member function is denoted using the keyword const. The qualifier const appears both in member function declarations and definitions. Once a member function declared as const, it cannot alter data values of the class.

SOLUTION

Member function is always called to operate on the specific object, not on the class in general. It is accessed using dot operator, which is also known as “ class member access operator ”.

SOLUTION

There are two kinds of members in a class: data members and member functions. Data members are exactly like the variables in a structure and member functions act on data members in the class.

SOLUTION

A class is a collection of data types and functions, which operate on them. The functions defined within a class, are known as member functions or methods.

SOLUTION

Mutator functions are also known as setters. these are the member functions that allow us to change the data members of an object.

SOLUTION

When we use private keyword it means that data is accessible within a class and it cannot be accessed outside the class. thus maintain data hiding.

SOLUTION

The body of a class is delimited by braces and terminated by semicolon.

SOLUTION

An object is an instance of a class. It is the root of class hierarchy and the process of creating it is called instantiation.

SOLUTION

Yes we can.  Consider the structure definition below- 

struct date{ int day;

                 int mon;

                 int year;

             };

struct employee{

                   int ecode;

                   char ename[20] ;

                   char addr[30]   ;

                   date dob;

                   };

The array of structures is declared as -       employee E[10];

Simple members may accept data as -         cin>>E[i].ecode;

Members of nested structure date can accept data as -

    cin>>E[i].dob.day;

    cin>>E[i].dob.mon;

    cin>>E[i].dob.year;

where i is the array index.                  

SOLUTION

An arrya is used to hold homogeneous data types. To store items of different data types we can use structures. A structure is a collection of variables under a single name. Varibales can be of any data type like int, float, char,etc.

SOLUTION

Yes, we can group data of different types using structures. A structure is a collection of variables types grouped together. Structures are useful whenever a lot of data needs to be grouped together. For example, when dealing with the students in a college, many variables of different types are needed like name, address, age, grade, subject. All these are grouped under one entity, i.e. structure.

SOLUTION

Structure date is a nested member of struct info, it should be defined before info.                

SOLUTION

          struct date{ int day;
                                  int mon;

                                  int year;

                                } ;

                struct addrs{  int houseno;

                                    char area[20];

                                    char city[15]; 

                                    long pincode;

                                } ;

                struct student{ char name[15];

                                      char class[6];

                                      int rollno;

                                      date date_of_birth;

                                      addrs address;

SOLUTION

i)    d1=d2;                              Correct – same data type

ii)   D1=d2;                              Incorrect, D1 and d2 are different data types, DATE and date

iii)  date d3={22,8,2005};          Correct, initialization possible    

iv)  date d4;  d4={12,2,2005};   Incorrect, for a declared variable, assign values to members 

v)   DATE D={4,3,1999};           Correct    

SOLUTION

A macro is an operation defined in #define  preprocessor directive. Macros may be equivalent to expressions, complete statements or groups of statements.  A macro defined in one file is not recognized in another file.  Macro definitions are placed at the beginning of the file.

#include< iostream.h>                                #include< iostream.h>

#define area l*b                                        #define square(a) a*a

void main(){                                              void main(){

  int l,b;                                                    int a=5;

  cout<<"enter length : "; cin>>l;                  cout<< square(a);

  cout<<"nbreadth : "; cin>>b;                      } 

  cout<<"area = "<< area;

}

SOLUTION

//using simple structures
          #include < iostream.h>

#include < conio.h>

struct S{

          char clas[6];

          int rollno;

          char name[20];

  int eng;

  int science;

  int math;

  int socsc;

};

void main(){

   S s;

   char c;

   clrscr();

   cout<<"Class and Section : ";cin.getline(s.clas,6);

   cout<<"Roll number : ";cin>>s.rollno;

   c=cin.get();

   cout<<"nName : ";cin.getline(s.name,20);

   cout<<"nEnglish marks : ";cin>>s.eng;

   cout<<"nScience marks : ";cin>>s.science;

   cout<<"nMath marks : ";cin>>s.math;

   cout<<"nSoc.Science Marks : ";cin>>s.socsc;

   cout<<"n Total = "<< s.eng+s.science+s.socsc+s.math;

   getch();

SOLUTION

//using simple structures
          #include < iostream.h>

#include < conio.h>

struct S{

          char clas[6];

          int rollno;

          char name[20];

  int eng;

  int science;

  int math;

  int socsc;

};

void main(){

   S s;

   char c;

   clrscr();

   cout<<"Class and Section : ";cin.getline(s.clas,6);

   cout<<"Roll number : ";cin>>s.rollno;

   c=cin.get();

   cout<<"nName : ";cin.getline(s.name,20);

   cout<<"nEnglish marks : ";cin>>s.eng;

   cout<<"nScience marks : ";cin>>s.science;

   cout<<"nMath marks : ";cin>>s.math;

   cout<<"nSoc.Science Marks : ";cin>>s.socsc;

   cout<<"n Total = "<< s.eng+s.science+s.socsc+s.math;

   getch();

SOLUTION

#include< iostream.h>
#include< conio.h>

struct Addr
{
int eno;
char name[20];
char address[20];
};

struct Employee
{

int sal;
char dept[20];
Addr ad;

};

void main()
{

Employee emp;
cout<< "nEnter EmpNo:";
cin>> emp.ad.eno;
cout<< "nEnter Name: ";
cin>> emp.ad.name;
cout<< "nEnter sal: ";
cin>> emp.sal;
cout<< "nEnter Dept: ";
cin>> emp.dept;
cout<<"nEnter Address: ";
cin>> emp.ad.address;

cout<< "nEmployee Record: ";

cout<< "Name:"<< emp.ad.name;

cout<< "nEmpNo: "<< emp.ad.eno;

cout<< "nSalary: "<< emp.sal;

cout<< "nDept: "<< emp.dept;

cout<< "nAddress: "<< emp.ad.address ;

}

SOLUTION

 //using array of structures

#include < iostream.h>

#include < conio.h>

struct date{

  int dd;

  int mm;

  int yy;

};

struct S{

  int admno;

  char fname[10];

  char lname[10];

  long phone;

  date dob;

};

void main(){

  S s[35];

  int i,adno;

  char c;

  clrscr();

  for(i=0;i<35;i++)

  {

   clrscr();

   cout<<"Admission Number : ";cin>>s[i].admno;

   c=cin.get();

   cout << c;

   cout<<"nFirst Name : ";cin.getline(s[i].fname,10);

   cout<<"nLast Name : ";cin.getline(s[i].lname,10);

   cout<<"nContact telephone : ";cin>>s[i].phone;

   cout<<"n date of birth - day :";

   cin>>s[i].dob.dd;

   cout<<"n  month :";

   cin>>s[i].dob.mm;

   cout<<"n year :";

   cin>>s[i].dob.yy;

   getch();

  }

  clrscr();

  cout<<"Enter Admission Number : "; cin>>adno;

  for(i=0;i<35;i++)

  {

   if (adno= =s[i].admno)

   {

   cout<<"nName : "<< s[i].fname << ' '<< s[i].lname ;

   cout<<"nContact Telephone : "<< s[i].phone;

   cout<<"nDate of Birth = "<< s[i].dob.dd<< '-'<< s[i].dob.mm<< '-'<< s[i].dob.yy;

   break;

   }

  }

  getch();

}                                               

SOLUTION

//passing a date variable to a function by value 
           #include < iostream.h>
         #include < conio.h>
            struct date{ int day;

                 int mon;

                 int year;

               };

void main()

{

  date d;

  int val;

  clrscr();

  int valid(date);

  cout<<"nEnter date  - day :";

  cin>>d.day;

  cout<<"n month :";

  cin>>d.mon;

  cout<<"n year :";

  cin>>d.year;

  val=valid(d);

  if (val==1)

    cout<< "nValid date";

  else

    cout<<"nInvalid date";

  getch();

}

int valid(date dt){

  int v; v=0;

  int days[]={31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31};

  if(dt.mon==2 && dt.day==29 && dt.year%4==0)

    v=1;

  else

  if (dt.mon<1 || dt.mon>12)

       v=0;

  else

  for(int i=0;i<12;i++){

    if (dt.day<=days[dt.mon-1])

         v=1;

         break;

  }

  return v;

SOLUTION

#include< iostream.h>
#include< conio.h>
struct Teacher
{
 int id;
 char name[20];
 char quali[20];
 char desig[20];

}t={111,"Soumya","MCA","TGT"};

void main()
{
cout<< "nTeachers Record: ";
cout<< "Name:"<< t.name;
cout<< "nId: "<< t.id;
cout<< "nQualification: "<< t.quali;
cout<< "nDesignation: "<< t.desig;
}

SOLUTION

#include< iostream.h>
#include< conio.h>

struct Info
{
 int rno;
 char name[20];
};

struct Student
{

 int clas;
 int mks;
 Info ob;

}s1={12,345};

void main()
{
cout<< "nEnter Name: ";
cin>>s1.ob.name;
cout<< "nEnter Rno: ";
cin>>s1.ob.rno;
cout<< "nStudent Record: ";
cout<< "Name:"<< s1.ob.name;
cout<< "nRollNo: "<< s1.ob.rno;
cout<< "nClass: "<< s1.clas;
cout<< "nMarks: "<< s1.mks;

}        

SOLUTION

 //passing to a function by reference.
           
           #include < iostream.h>            
           #include < conio.h>             
           struct ITEM
          {  
                int icode;
             char iname[20];
             int unit_cost ;

       int qty_in_stock;

};

void main()

{

  ITEM I[10];

  char c;

  void update(ITEM&);

  for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
            {

   clrscr();

   cout << "Enter item code : ";

   cin >> I[i].icode;

   c = cin.get();

   cout << "Enter item name : " << c;

   cin.getline(I[i].iname,20);

   cout<<"Enter unit cost : ";

   cin >> I[i].unit_cost;

   cout << "Enter quantity in stock :";

   cin >> I[i].qty_in_stock;

   }

  for(i=0;i<10;i++)
            {

   if(I[i].qty_in_stock==0)

   update(I[i]);

  }

  for(i=0;i<10;i++)
            {

   cout << "Code : " << I[i].icode;

   cout << "Name : "<< I[i].iname;

   cout << "Unit Cost : " << I[i].unit_cost;

   cout << "Current Stock : " << I[i].qty_in_stock;

  }
             getch();

}

void update(ITEM &item)
          {

 item.qty_in_stock=100;

}                                                       

SOLUTION

It is the definition of a static data member count of class s and data member count is given initial value 10 at the time of definition.

SOLUTION

Private members are the class members that are hidden from the outside world. The private members implement the OOP concept of data hiding. 

SOLUTION

A class declaration having class keyword and class-name is must for every class. There should be colon after all the access specifiers i.e. public, private and protected.

SOLUTION

The scope resolution operator (::) is useful to distinguish between class member names and other names. For example,
class A
{
int x;
float y;
public:
void readm( ) const;
....
...
}; In this class the full qualified name of variable x is A::x.        

SOLUTION

in inline function, at each place where there is a function call in the source file, the actual code from the function would be inserted, instead of a jump to the function.

SOLUTION

It is less than the scope resolution operator ::, the parenthesis ( ) and array access [ ]  operators.   

SOLUTION

Macros are also given as preprocessor directives i.e. # define is used to define macros too. Macros may be equivalent to expressions, complete statements or groups of statements. They resemble functions but are treated differently during compilation. A macro defined in one file is not recognized in another file. Macro definitions are customarily placed at the beginning of the file.

SOLUTION

The entire structure can be passed to the functions in two ways : by value and by reference. Passing by value is useful when the original values are not to be  changed and passing by reference is useful when original values are to be changed.        

SOLUTION

Structure assignment is possible only if both the structures are of same structure type. Only assignment (=) is possible for two similar structures. Other operations, such as comparisons (== and !=) are not defined for similar structures.                

SOLUTION

The structure variable name followed by a period (.) and the element name reference to that individual structure element. The syntax for accessing a structure element is :
structure-name.element-name

SOLUTION

In C++, a structure is a class declared with keyword struct and by default, all members are public in a structure.                          

SOLUTION

struct Salesman
{
int id;
float salary;
int totalsales;
};
Structures are useful when a lot of data needs to be grouped together. Once defined, the structure name becomes a user defined data type and may be used the same way as other built-in data types.

SOLUTION

struct student

{ int rollno;

char name[20];

float marks[3];

};

student result[3]

{ {01,"Reena", {82.0,91.5,78.0} }, //structure 0

{02,"Aakash", {68.0,71.0,57.0} }, // structure 1

{03,"Venkat", {61.0,59.0,70.0} }, // structure 2

};

SOLUTION

The structure is a user defined data type that acts as a template for creating variables of that type.
For Example –

struct date{ int day;

                 int mon;

                 int year;

               };

SOLUTION

A self referential structure has an element that refers to the structure itself.  This is  actually a pointer that points to a structure of the same type.
For Example –

struct date{ int day;

                 int mon;

                 int year;

                 date *dt;

SOLUTION

Yes we can.  Consider the structure definition below- 

struct date{ int day;

                 int mon;

                 int year;

             };

struct employee{

                   int ecode;

                   char ename[20] ;

                   char addr[30]   ;

                   date dob;

                   };

The array of structures is declared as -       employee E[10];

Simple members may accept data as -         cin>>E[i].ecode;

Members of nested structure date can accept data as -

    cin>>E[i].dob.day;

    cin>>E[i].dob.mon;

    cin>>E[i].dob.year;

where i is the array index.                  

SOLUTION

A class is declared using the keyword class while a structure needs the keyword struct. All members are private by default in a class while in a structure they are public. Traditionally, structures are used to declare data only while classes have both data and functions.

SOLUTION

Array elements are all of the same data type while in a structure they may not be.  In an array, individual elements are accessed using the index number (or subscript) while in a structure, a dot is used to access members.                

SOLUTION

Preprocessor commands are called DIRECTIVES and begin with a pound / hash symbol(#). No white space should appear before the # and a semi colon is NOT required at the end.

SOLUTION

# define and #include are two commonly used preprocessor directives.
#include< iostream.h > - this is an instruction to include the file iostream.h 
#define  PI   3.14        - this defines a symbolic constant PI and replaces every PI in the program with 3.14  

SOLUTION

typedef is a keyword used to give an alternative name to an existing data type. Once a structure has been declared, typedef can be used to give it an alias. Then onwards,  both the names for the data type can be used. 
Example  -
typedef long telephone;          // telephone can also be used to declare variables of long type

telephone office, residence;

long neighbour;

typedef float money;              // float and money both can be used to declare float variables

float amount;

SOLUTION

It is incremented by the size of the structure.                                   

SOLUTION

struct Customer
{
int custnum;
int salary:
float commission:
};

SOLUTION

A self referential structure is used to create data structures like linked list, stacks, etc. It has an element that refers to the structure itself.  This is actually a pointer that points to a structure of the same type.
For Example –

struct node

{
              int data;
              node*next;

}

SOLUTION

The structures are defined globally so that variables of this structure type can be declared in any function. A structured declared within a function is available only to that function.                             

SOLUTION

Simplified view of object that includes only features in which one is interested in and hides unnecessary details is known as data abstraction. For example, while driving a car, we are not concerned about the hidden parts such as fuel injection, disk brake etc.

SOLUTION

Inline functions speed up the program. The only difference between inline functions and  the normal functions is that inline functions' definitions start with the keyword inline. 

SOLUTION

Accessor member functions allow us to access field of object but cannot change the value of data members. For example, getRollno( ) and getMarks( ) which can read the roll number and marks of a student, respectively.

SOLUTION

By providing accessors and mutators, we make sure that data is edited in desired manner through a mutator. Further, if a user wants to know current value of a private data member, s(he) can get it through an accessor function. Accessor and mutators are also called getters and setters.

SOLUTION

The public members of a class can be invoked only by using an object of that class using a dot operator. However, a member function of the same class can call another member function of the same class using its name. We do not need an object to call them. It is known as nesting of member functions.

SOLUTION

The private members can be accessed only from within the class. A class specification involves the declarations of its data member and member functions. There are two ways to layout a class definition. The first way is to place the private data before the public functions and data. The second way is to place the public members first, followed by protected and private members.

SOLUTION

The private data members can be accessed only from the member functions of the class.

SOLUTION

A class declared within another class is called as nested class. The outer class is known as enclosing class and the inner class is known as nested class.

SOLUTION

The nested class can access public members of its enclosing class using an object only.The same applies for enclosing class also i.e., it can access public members of nested class through an object.

SOLUTION

Manager functions are member functions with specific functionality (e.g., constructors and destructors) that deal with initializing and destroying class instances.

SOLUTION

The sum function should be so defined to calculate and return the summation result of the given values to the calling function. Therefore, the sum function should be corrected as:
#include< iostream.h >
void main()
{
    int a, b;
    cin >> a >> b;
    int s = sum(a, b);
    cout << s;
}
int sum(int a, int b)
{
    return (a+b);
}

SOLUTION

One class may have another class defined within it, known as nested class. One way of doing so is that a class contain objects of other classes as its members as shown below:
class X
{
   ...
   ...
} class Y
{
    ...
    ...
} class Z
{
  X O1;
  Y O2;
  ...
};  

SOLUTION

The static member functions are the functions that can access only the static members. So, in the above code fragment a static member function is trying to access a nonstatic member which is the error.

To correct it the static member function should be as given below :       static void prn(void)      {           cout << ctr;      }      

SOLUTION

math.h is a header file in the standard library of the C++ programming language designed for basic mathematical operations.

SOLUTION

In the given code, only the public members are accessible by outside of the class. Data Hiding term is used so that only relevant information is exposed to the user and rest of the information remains hidden from the user. The class groups its members (data and functions) into three sections : private, protected and public, where private and protected members remains hidden from outside world and thereby support data hiding.

SOLUTION

A class is said to be global class if its definition occurs outside the bodies of all functions in a program, which means that object of this class type can be declared from anywhere in the program, An object is said to be a global object if its declared outside all the function bodies and it means that this object is globally available to all functions in the program i.e., this object can be used anywhere in the program.

SOLUTION

A static data member of a class is just like a global variable for its class. Two things are needed for making a data member static:
1. declaration within the class definition.
2. definition outside the class definition.

The declaration of a static data member within the class defintion will look like :
class X
{
  static int count ;
  ...
};

The definition of above declared static member count outside the class will be as follows:
int X :: count;

Therefore, the entire class definition would look like as:
class X
{
    static int count;
    ...
};
int X :: count;      

SOLUTION

Member functions are set of operations that may be applied to objects of that class. The public members can be accessed from outside the class also therefore, it is preferred to define the member functions as public.

SOLUTION

An object is said to be a local object if it is declared within a function, which means that this object is locally available to the function that declares it and cannot be used outside the function declaring it.

SOLUTION

When a class is inherited all the functions and data member are inherited, although not all of them will be accessible by the member functions of the derived class. Similarly, a child inherits properties from both the parents.

SOLUTION

By default, all the members are public in a structure but private in a class. In a class, the data members are declared similar to the other variable declarations in C++ and the member functions are declared by providing their prototypes.

SOLUTION

If the referencing object is a global object, then the scope of public members is also global, whereas if the referencing object is a local object, then the scope of public members is also local.

SOLUTION

Private members implement the concept of data hiding.They can be accessed only by member functions of the class in which they are declared.

SOLUTION

Protected members can be used only by member functions and friends of the class in which it is declared.

SOLUTION

An object is said to be global object if it is declared outside all the function bodies.

SOLUTION

There are three access specifiers: public, private and protected. Public members can be accessed by outside member functions also, whereas private members can be accessed by member functions within the class only. Member functions are generally defined as public so that they can be called from outside functions.

SOLUTION

For example: class class-name { data member member function() }