SOLUTION

The function that perform an action and have no explicit return value is called a procedural function.

SOLUTION

A function can be invoked in two ways i.e. either by call by value or by call by reference method.

SOLUTION

Function call need not be purely by value, or by reference. Mix of the two is also possible.

SOLUTION

Only variables can be passed by reference, not the constants or expressions.

SOLUTION

In call by reference method a reference to the original variable is passed and the called function can access and works with the original values using their references.

SOLUTION

The unsigned short int type can be used for variables which will have only positive and zero whole number values, within the range of the unsigned short type. It ranges from 0 to 65,535.

SOLUTION

What happens inside the function has no effect on the variables used in function call.

SOLUTION

A return statement is used to terminate a function whether or not it returns a value.

SOLUTION

By constant argument, it is meant that there values can not be modified. That is why function cannot modify these arguments.

SOLUTION

Default arguments are useful in situations where some arguments always have the same value.

SOLUTION

C++ allows us to assign default values to a function parameters which is useful in case a matching argument is not passed in the function call statements.

SOLUTION

correct syntax is

int area(int length=3,int breadth=1);

SOLUTION

Default values of parameter are specified at the time of function declaration, not at function call statement.

SOLUTION

The functions in the header file iostream.h are: seekg(), put(), write(), seekp(), open(), close(), flush(), clear().

SOLUTION

The C standard library consists of a set of sections of the ANSI C standard which describes collections of headers and library routines, whereas C++ library consists of a collection of functions, constants, objects and templates.

SOLUTION

Two functions of header file stdlib.h are:
1. malloc: Allocates a block of size bytes of memory
2. free: A block of memory previously allocated using a call to malloc, calloc or realloc is deallocated, making it available again for further allocations.

SOLUTION

The output of the program is 16.
 It is calculating the square of 4 or the value of (4)².

SOLUTION

String is treated by c++ as an array which is terminated by null character ‘0;
The prototype required for this is string.h as the header file.

SOLUTION

i. isalnum() function is a character function and it checks whether its argument is alpahnumeric or not.
ii. isalpha() function isa character function and it checks whether its argument is alphabetic or not.

SOLUTION

The strcmp( ) function compares two strings. It returns less than zero value to the string which is shorter. It returns zero, if two strings are equal.

SOLUTION

islower(c) means c is a lowercase character.
tolower( ) converts uppercase(C) character tolower case(c).

SOLUTION

The inbuilt functions belong to the following header files:
i) eof belongs to the header file iostream.h.
ii) puts belongs to the header file stdio.h.
iii) strcmp belongs to the header file string.h.               
iv) get belongs to header file iostream.h.

SOLUTION

The two functions used to convert between letter cases are:
1. tolower: Converts uppercase letter to lowercase. 
2. toupper: Converts lowercase letter to uppercase.

SOLUTION

A program to generate random numbers from 0-10:

#include < iostream.h>

#include < stdlib.h >

#include < conio.h >

int main()

{

clrscr();

int random_integer= rand();

cout< < random_integer;

getch();

return 0;

}

Output:

SOLUTION

A program in C++ to check the size of the string:

#include< iostream.h >

#include< conio.h >

#include< string.h >

int main()

{

char str1[100];

cout < < "enter a string: ";

cin > > str1;

cout < < " The size of str1 is " < < strlen(str1) < < " characters";

getch();

return 0;

}

Output:

SOLUTION

A program in C++ to compare two strings:

#include< iostream.h>

#include< conio.h>

#include< string.h>

main()

{

char first[50], second[50];

cout<<"enter first string:";

cin>> first;

cout<<" enter second string: ";

cin>> second;

if(strcmp (first, second)==0)

{

cout<<"n the strings are equal";

}

else cout<<"strings are not equal";

getch();

}

Output:

SOLUTION

The three predefined streams of stdio.h are as follows:
1.  stdin: It is a standard input stream. By default, the input is taken from the keyboard.
2.  stdout:  It is a standard output stream. By default, stdin corresponds to the screen. 
3. stderr: It is a standard error stream. It is an output stream used specifically to find out the errors.

SOLUTION

A program to check whether an alphabet is in lowercase or in uppercase:

#include< iostream.h >

#include< conio.h >

#include< string.h >

#include< ctype.h >

int main()

{

clrscr();

char ch;

cout< < " Enter an alphabet";

cin > > ch;

if(isalpha(ch))

{

if(islower(ch))

cout< < " lowercase alphabets";

else if (isupper (ch))

cout< < " uppercase alphabets";

}

else

cout< < "Not an alphabet";

getch();

return 0;

}

Output:

SOLUTION

          #include< iostream.h>

          #include< conio.h>

          #include< string.h>

          int main()

           {

           clrscr();

           char str[20];

       cout<<”n Enter a string”;

       cin.getline (str,20);

       return 0;

      }

         Output:

SOLUTION

The required header files are:
string.h for strlen()
stdio.h for puts()

SOLUTION

Mathematical functions help in mathematical calculations. The header file used for these functions is math.h. These functions performs mathmetical calculations and conversions.
Some of the mathmetical functions are sqrt(), log(), pow(), sin() etc.

SOLUTION

The C++ language contains some statements only and not any built-in functions. A library is a collection of subprograms used to develop other programs and software. Libraries are not independent programs but act as helper codes used in other independent programs. The C++ library of functions stores functions of same category (e.g., mathematical functions, string functions etc.) under separate files known as header files. 

SOLUTION

The character functions used in the header file ctype.h are as follows:

SOLUTION

A special type of local variable, called a static local, is available in many mainstream languages, including C/C++, Visual Basic and VB.NET, which allows a value to be retained from one call of the function to another.

SOLUTION

The left-hand side of an assignment statement must consist only of a single, previously declared, variable. The left-hand side of an assignment is called the target -- the variable whose contents are changed as a result of the assignment.

SOLUTION

A variable's lifetime is its parent-block-run, i.e., as long as its parent block is executing, the variable lives in the memory.

SOLUTION

Information hiding in computer science is the principle of hiding of design decisions in a computer program, that are most likely to change. Thus, protecting other parts of the program from change, if the design decision is changed.

SOLUTION

The main benefit of call by value method is, that we cannot alter the variables that are used to call the function, because any changes that occurs inside function is on the function’s copy of the argument value.

SOLUTION

In call by reference method, a reference to the original variable is passed. A reference is an alias for a predefined variable.

SOLUTION

A static function is a function whose scope is limited to the current source file. A static function has a file scope instead of program scope.

SOLUTION

Functions make program handling easier, as only a part of the program to deal with.

SOLUTION

The auto storage-class specifier declares an automatic variable, a variable with a local lifetime. It is the default storage-class specifier for variables.

SOLUTION

When a variable is passed by reference we are not passing a copy of its value, but we are somehow passing the variable itself to the function and any modification that we do to the local variables will have an effect in their counterpart variables passed as arguments in the call to the function.

SOLUTION

A reference is an alternative name for an object. A reference variable provide an alias for a previously defined variable.

SOLUTION

In call by reference method, a reference to the original variable is passed and changes made in these variable reflected back to the memory address. thus permanent change in memory address is done.

SOLUTION

External variables are globally accessible. They remains in existence permanently as they retain their values even after the functions that set them was returned. i.e. why these variables specifies that they are already been defined in the program.

SOLUTION

The variables declared and used in the function have function scope.

SOLUTION

The C++ register keyword can be used as a hint to the compiler that the declared variable is to be accessed very often during program execution, and hence, require faster access.  

SOLUTION

The auto storage-class specifier declares an automatic variable, a variable with a local lifetime. It is the default storage-class specifier for variables.

SOLUTION

There are four kinds of scope in C++: local, function, file and class.

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

There may be three types of functions in c++:
(1) Computational functions.
(2) Manipulative functions.
(3) Procedural functions.    

SOLUTION

you must pass arrays by reference; you'll get a syntax error if you try to pass an array by value. Because arrays are passed by reference, you can pass an array to another procedure to be modified, and then continue working with the modified array in the calling procedure.

SOLUTION

The following header files are used in C++ language:
1. stdio.h: This header file defines types and macros needed for the standard I/O packages. It also defines the standard I/O predefined streams. 
2. string.h: It declares several string manipulation and memory manipulation routines. The following are the functions contained in string.h: memccpy, strcmp, strcat, strcpy, strncpy etc.
3. math.h: This header file declares prototypes for the math functions and math error handlers. 
4. stdlib.h: This header file declares several commonly used routines like conversion routines, search/sort routines and other miscellaneous things.

SOLUTION

The functions which are used to generate random numbers are as follows:
1.  rand()
2.  srand()
3.  random()
4.  randomize()
5.  rand_max()
• rand(): The rand function returns a “random” positive integer from 0 to a large value (atleast 32767) everytime it is called. To scale the value into the range, use the mod (%) operator and addition.

• rand_max(): Value of rand_max() varies between compilers and

can be as low as 32767 which would give a range from 0 to 32767 for

rand().

• random(): random(num) generates a random number within 0 to

num-1, For example, random(10) will generate random numbers from

0 to 9.

• randomize(): initializes / seeds the random number generator with a

random number. 

• srand(): srand() is used to prevent the repetition of random numbers whenever the program is executed.

SOLUTION

stdlib.h is the header file that declares several commonly used routines like conversion routines, search and sort routines etc. 
Some of the functions of stdio.h are _fullpath, _makepath, _search.h, _splitpath.

fullpath: function formulates the full pathname for a file from its relative path relPath argument and stores the result in absPath, returning a pointer to the resulting string.

makeapath: builds a path from components path.

search.h: Some search types are-
bsearch performs a binary search.
lsearch performs a linear search
searchenv searches on environment path for a file.

splitpath: splits a full path into its components.

SOLUTION

A reference is an alternative name for an object.

SOLUTION

The prototype declaration looks just like a function definition except that it has no body.

SOLUTION

Use of function avoids ambiguity. It reduces the program size and thus, makes the program more readable and understandable to the programmer.

SOLUTION

An inline function is that, which is not involved at the time of function call, rather its code replaces the function call that invokes it, in the program. Thus, inline functions save the overhead of a function call.  

SOLUTION

For some functions, one may want to make some of its parameters as optional and use the default values, if the user does not want to provide values for such parameters. This is done with the help of default argument values.

SOLUTION

A static variable, also referred to as a class variable is a variable, which exists across an instance of a class.

SOLUTION

The scope decides, in which part of the program a particular piece of code would be known and can be accessed .

SOLUTION

The general form of a function definition is given by type function-name(parameter list)
{
Body of the function
}  

SOLUTION

A function prototype is a declaration of a function, that tells the program about the type of the value returned by the function and the number and type of arguments received by it.

SOLUTION

A function is a subprogram that acts on the data and often returns a value.  

SOLUTION

A static function is a function whose scope is limited to the current source file. A static function has a file scope instead of a program scope.

SOLUTION

A function declarator is the function name followed by a parenthesized list of parameter types and names of each parameter that the function expects.

SOLUTION

Register variables are a special case of automatic variables. Automatic variables are allocated storage in the memory of the computer; however, for most computers, accessing data in memory is considerably slower than processing in the CPU.

SOLUTION

The functions that compute some value and return the calculated value, are known as computational functions. For example, sqrt( ) and cos( ).

SOLUTION

Manipulative functions are the functions that manipulate the information and return a success or failure code. If 0 is returned, it denotes a successful operation and if any other number is returned, it denotes a failure.

SOLUTION

When the function performs some action and has no return type, is known as a procedural function. For example: exit( ) function.

SOLUTION

The three types of functions in C++ are: computational functions, manipulative functions and procedural functions.

SOLUTION

Function declaration is required to specify the function's interface to a program. Function definition is required to tell the program about what and how a function is doing. Function call is required to invoke the function.

SOLUTION

The two ways are: using a reference parameter and using a value returning function with an assignment statement.

SOLUTION

The name of a class member has a class scope and is local to its class.

SOLUTION

C++ provides four kinds of scope: local, function, file and class.

SOLUTION

A reference is an alias or an alternative name for an object. All the operations applied to a reference act on the object to which the reference refers.

SOLUTION

In computer science, a local variable is a variable that is given local scope. Such a variable is accessible only from the function or block in which it is declared.

SOLUTION

In computer programming, a global variable is a variable that is accessible in every scope.

SOLUTION

Formal parameters are the variables declared in the parameter list of a subprogram (such as a procedure or a function)specification.

SOLUTION

Actual parameters are the variables or expressions referenced in the parameter list of a subprogram call. They are also known as arguments.

SOLUTION

All the functions except those of type void, return a value. The return statement explicitly specifies this value. When a value is returned, the entire function can be assigned to a variable.

SOLUTION

An inline function is that which is not invoked at the time of function call rather its code replaces the very function call that invokes it, in the program.

SOLUTION

A function declared with an empty argument list as void display(); means that the function does not pass any parameters. It is identical to the statement void display(void);

SOLUTION

A variabless lifetime is its parent-block-run. Therefore, the lifetime of local variables having function scope is the function-run.

SOLUTION

A variable's lifetime is its parent-block-run. The global variable's lifetime is the program-run, i.e., the time during which the program executes.

SOLUTION

To differentiate from the normal functions with the member functions of the class, one needs to use the scope resolution operator (::) in between the class name and the member function name i.e. ship::foo() where the ship is the class and the foo() is the member function in the ship.

SOLUTION

The scope resolution operator (::) in C++ is used to define the already declared member functions (in the header file with the .hpp extension) of the class.

SOLUTION

A variable's lifetime is its parent-block-run. Therefore, the lifetime of local variables having block scope is the block-run.

SOLUTION

A function prototype is a declaration of a function, that tells the program about the type of the value returned by the function and the number and type of arguments received by it.

SOLUTION

In computer programming, a return statement causes execution to leave the current subroutine and resume at a point in the code immediately after, where the subroutine was called - known as its return address.

SOLUTION

All functions except those of the type void return a value. The return statement explicitly specifies this value.

SOLUTION

Return value can be used for different purposed such as to reside, manipulate or to print.

SOLUTION

Expressions generally use the functions that  have returning value.

SOLUTION

Functions are made up of three parts
(1) Function Declaration.
(2) Function Definition.
(3) Function calling.  

SOLUTION

Parameter that we pass in function is enclosed in parenthesis'('  ')'

for example:   int func(int a, int b)
                         {
                            }
a and b are parameters.

SOLUTION

Eg:-  Function prototype:      int area(int, int);   Function call:               area(x,y); 
Both the above statements ends with semicolon.           

SOLUTION

Function can be of three types:
(1) Computational Functions
(2) Manipulative Functions
(3) Procedural Functions  

SOLUTION

A function may contain several return statements. However, only one of them gets executed because the execution of the function terminates as soon as a return is encountered.