SOLUTION

An abstract class is meant to be used as a base class from which other classes are derived.

SOLUTION

Abstraction is the process by which data and programs are defined with a representation similar to its meaning (semantics), while hiding away the implementation details. Abstraction tries to reduce and factor out details so that the programmer can focus on a few concepts at a time.

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Data abstraction is focusing on the important features leaving behind the unessential part.

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Data hiding is a related concept to data abstraction.

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Through encapsulation, an inteface is made available to the world through which users can use the class.

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Procedural programming is susceptible to design changes, which leads to many modifications in the code. This results in increased time and cost overheads at times.

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Paradigm refers to a way of doing things. A programming paradigm gives you an idea how problems are generally analyzed and solved in a particular programming language.

SOLUTION

Public data is accessible even outside the class.

SOLUTION

Private data is accessible within a class only.

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A class is a way to bind the data describing an entity and its associated functions together.

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There are two kinds of members in a class: data members and member functions. Data members are exactly like the variables in a structure and member functions act on data members of the class.

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A class is a collection of data members and member functions, which operate on them. The functions defined within a class, is called as member functions or methods.

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The data within a class is private, i.e., the data is hidden so that it will be safe from accidental manipulation. The functions are public so that they can be accessed from outside the class.

SOLUTION

Name binding is an association of values with identifiers. The binding performed as the program runs is called dynamic binding or late or virtual binding.

SOLUTION

Inheritance is a way to form new classes (instances of which are called objects) using classes that have already been defined. Inheritance is intended to reuse existing code with little or no modification. The new classes, known as derived classes, inherit attributes and behavior of the pre-existing classes, which are referred to as base classes (or ancestor classes).

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Data encapsulation is the wrapping up of data within a classes, enhancing information hiding features.

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Data hiding is a characteristic of object-oriented programming in which an object can only be associated with data in predefined classes or templates.

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Data abstraction is the process of representing essential features without including implementation details.

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In Procedural programming, programs are written as a list of instructions in a sequence.

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In object-oriented programming, inheritance is a way to form new classes (instances of which are called objects) using classes that have already been defined.

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To implement all OOP features in C++, like Encapsulation, data abstraction and data hiding we need to use classes.

SOLUTION

Data hiding is a characteristic of object-oriented programming in which an object can only be associated with data in predefined classes or templates. The object can only "know" about the data it needs to know about. Encapsulation is the inclusion of one thing within another thing so that the included thing is not apparent. Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose.

SOLUTION

The function signature defines the set of traits associated with the activation of a function object.

SOLUTION

Function overloading (also polymorphism or method overloading) is a programming concept that allows programmer to define two or more functions with the same name, having different arguments.

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The derived class is expected to provide implementations for the member functions that are not implemented in the base class. A derived class that implements all the missing functionality is called a concrete class .

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An abstract class is a class that is declared abstract—it may or may not include abstract methods. Abstract classes cannot be instantiated, but they can be subclassed.

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Late binding is done at run time, to link function call with the code to execute.

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Early binding - Assigning values to variables during design time or exposing object model at design time.

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Static binding is the selection of a particular call at the compile-time.

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Name binding is an association of values with identifiers. The binding of names before the program runs is called static binding.

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int Calcvol( int s);                    // for a cube s*s*s

int Calcvol( float l, int s);                // for cuboid l*s*s

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b. void XYZ(int a, float b, char c ), as the arguments list matches.

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int calcint( int);

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Arrays hold a fixed number of equally-sized data elements, which are of same data type.

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All structure members are public by default; class variables and constants are private by default, while other class members are public by default.

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A structure tag name can be used to declare variable of a structure type.

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The -> (arrow) operator is used to access class, structure or union members using a pointer. A postfix expression, followed by an -> (arrow) operator, followed by a possibly qualified identifier or a pseudo-destructor name, designates a member of the object to which the pointer points.

SOLUTION

Every variable has a data type. typedef is used to define new data type names to make a program more readable to the programmer.

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Nested structure enables us to nest one structure definition within another.

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A structure can contain other structure as member.

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The #define directive can be used to either define a constant number or function or to replace an instruction in the code.

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The typedef does not actually create a new data class, rather it defines a new name for an existing type. This can increase the portability of a program as only the typedef statements would have to be changed. The syntax of typedef statement is : typedef type name;

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Every variable has a data type. The keyword typedef is used to define new data type names to make a program more readable to the programmer.

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Pass by reference refers to a method of passing the address of an argument in the calling function to a corresponding parameter in the called function.

SOLUTION

Two ways to pass arguments to a function are: pass by value and pass by reference. With pass-by-reference, the caller gives the called function the ability to access the caller's data directly and to modify that data if the called function chooses to do so.

SOLUTION

The . (dot) operator is used to access class, structure, or union members. The member is specified by a postfix expression, followed by a . (dot) operator, followed by a possibly qualified identifier or a pseudo-destructor name. The postfix expression must be an object of type class, struct or union. The name must be a member of that object.

SOLUTION

The members of stuctures are accessed using dot operator. For example: To access the city member of address structure which is an element of another structure worker, we shall write: worker.address.city

SOLUTION

Structure is actually a class (in C++) declared with keyword struct. By default, all members are public in a structure, on the other hand, all members are private by default in classes.

SOLUTION

Arrays bring together a group of items of the same data type whereas structures bring together a group of related data items of any data type.

SOLUTION

Copy structure can also be assigned to another structure only if both the structures are of same type.

SOLUTION

User defined data types are created with the help of struct or class keywords.

SOLUTION

When we pass a structure as an argument, remember that the argument and the parameter are not the same variable. Instead, there are two variables (one in the caller and one in the callee) that have the same value, at least initially.

SOLUTION

A copy constructor is a special constructor in the C++ programming language used to create a new object as a copy of an existing object. The first argument of such a constructor is a reference to an object of the same type as is being constructed, which might be followed by parameters of any type.

SOLUTION

When an operator displays different behaviour in different situations, it is called operator overloading.  For example, ‘+’ is used to add numbers but it can be ‘overloaded’ to add two structure variables or class objects.

SOLUTION

Polymorphism is implemented through Operator Overloading , Function Overloading and Virtual Functions.

SOLUTION

An object is a basic entity in an Object Oriented System.  It may represent a person, a publication, a place or any item for which the program may handle data.  It is also defined as an instance of a class. 

SOLUTION

Larger and more complex programs are very difficult to maintain.

Emphasis is on procedure rather than data.

The way data is stored is critical and if the arrangement of data is changed, all functions that access it have to be changed.

SOLUTION

A procedural program is written as a list of instructions, telling the computer, step-by-step, what to do: accept  price,  write in file, display item code, name, price, profit etc.

SOLUTION

Paradigm refers to a way of doing something.   
Programming paradigm refers to an approach to or style of programming.

SOLUTION

When the selection of the appropriate function is done dynamically at run time.  This is generally when virtual functions are in use.

SOLUTION

When the compiler is able to select the appropriate function at compile time, based on a function call, it is called early or static binding.  This is generally when overloaded functions are in use.

SOLUTION

(a) An abstract class is used as a base class from which other classes are derived.  No objects are declared for this class.
(b) A concrete class is derived from an abstract class and generally has object declared.

SOLUTION

A function call first matches the number of arguments and the type of arguments and then calls the appropriate function. 

1.  The compiler first tries to find an exact match, where the number and types of actual and formal arguments are the same.

2.  If there is no exact match, the compiler uses integral promotion to find a match for example, char can easily be converted to int.

3.  If the above two does not work, then the compiler tries the built-in conversions to the actual parameters and then uses the function which matches. At times, there are multiple matches, and an error is generated. 

SOLUTION

The functions signature is its argument list. It includes the number and type of arguments. 

Consider two functions –  void fadd(int a, int b);  and  int fadd(int x, int y); 

SOLUTION

When the same function name has different definitions, it is known as function overloading.  The definitions differ in the number and types of the arguments. 

We must note that  – 

(i) The overloaded functions must have different arguments lists.
(ii) Overloading functions with the same argument list but different return type is not allowed.
(iii) Member functions cannot be overloaded by making one static and the other not, arguments being the same.There should be no ambiguity.

SOLUTION

Advantages are –
 

(i)  Reusability of code through classes and inheritance.

(ii)  Data hiding helps to build secure programs.

(iii) Classes can be designed to represent real world entities, along with data and  behaviour.

(iv) The data centered design lets us collect data in a more implementable form.

(v)  Multiple object co-exist without any interference.

SOLUTION

Object Based Programming bundles data and the functions that access it into a single unit, called class.  Features include encapsulation, data hiding and abstraction. 

Object Oriented Programming too bundles data and the functions that access it into a single unit, called class.  Some important features are encapsulation, data hiding, abstraction, inheritance and polymorphism. 

SOLUTION

Some concepts used extensively in Object Oriented Programming are – 

            (i)  Data abstraction

(ii) Encapsulation

(iii) Data hiding

(iv) Inheritance

SOLUTION

A class binds together data and functions that access it, thus enforcing encapsulation. 

The class represents essential features of the object, thus enforcing data abstraction.

SOLUTION

a)  Encapsulation  -  wrapping up of data and functions into a single unit is known as encapsulation.    

b)  Data hiding   -   insulation of data from direct access by the program is known as data hiding.        

c)  Abstraction  -  the inclusion of essential features, ignoring background details is known as abstraction.     

d)  Inheritance  -  the process by which objects of one class acquire the properties of the objects of another class is known as inheritance.

e)  Polymorphism -  the ability to exhibit different behaviour in different situations  is  known as polymorphism.  

SOLUTION

Symbolic constant is a constant (value that does not change) with a name.

SOLUTION

A structure is defined with the following syntax:
                struct struct_name
                {                    datatype variable_name;                 };

SOLUTION

At this point of time, just the structure is being defined. Memory space is reserved when its variable is declared.

SOLUTION

cout will display the values of a and b, which are the members of function struct. These members are called with the help of dot operator.

SOLUTION

A structure is a collection of variables referenced under one name. It is a utility to access two or more interrelated variables.

SOLUTION

A structure is declared using the struct keyword, followed by its name.

SOLUTION

When a function is passed by reference the called function declares a reference for the passed structure and refers to the original structure elements through its reference.  

SOLUTION

An array wherever being declared, should contain elements of the same data type.

SOLUTION

A typedef creates a new name to the existing datatype.

SOLUTION

This statement would create 50 sets of variables. To declare an array of structures, you must define a structure and then declare an array variable of that type.

SOLUTION

Both are being passed by value since, no reference variable is being used.

SOLUTION

Here, the structure variable is being passed by value. As a result, there wouldn’t be any change in the values of the structure variable.

SOLUTION

Since c is a member of variable cc therefore, cc.c is used to access it.

SOLUTION

EMP[45] is an array of a structure salary nested inside a structure tax.

SOLUTION

A # sign in the beginning of a statement means, it is a preprocessor directive, i.e., the instructions given here will be processed before the program is compiled.

SOLUTION

A structure inside another structure is called nested structure.

SOLUTION

For ABC, a reference variable is being used while for char, it is being passed by value.

SOLUTION

The statement "typedef salary amount" cannot run successfully because salary is not a fundamental or basic data type.

SOLUTION

Macros always replace the value of a variable before compilation while const acts like a simple constant during the compilation.

SOLUTION

A self-referential structure has an element that refers to the structure itself. This is actually a pointer that points to a structure of the same type.

SOLUTION

Tag is the name of the structure, which is being declared.

SOLUTION

In C++, a structure can contain only data. Here, we cannot declare functions inside a structure.

SOLUTION

A structure is a heterogeneous data structure since, it stores different types of data.

SOLUTION

The format for a structure declaration is: struct tag { structure members; } variable names; where tag is a user selected name, structure members are data members accessed by variables declared as this structure type and variable names are the names of the variable declared as this type of structure.

SOLUTION

struct time{ int hour;
                        int min;

                        int sec;

SOLUTION

Structures can be passed by reference just as other simple types. When a structure is passed by reference the called function declares a reference for the passed structure and refers to the original structure elements through its reference. Thus, the called function works with the original values.

SOLUTION

date D, *DT;           

SOLUTION

struct emp
{
  int id;
  char name;
  char desg;
  float salary;
} senior_employee, assistant_employee;

SOLUTION

The above code fragment will produce an error because s1 and s2, though have similar elements but are of different types A and B respectively and hence they cannot be assigned to one another.

SOLUTION

The structure definition is not terminated properly as the semicolon ';' is missing after the closing brace.