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In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface.

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A pixel is the smallest discrete component of an image or picture on a CRT screen (usually a colored dot).

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A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a computer language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code).

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A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for real-time applications. Such applications include embedded systems, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control and scientific research equipment.

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An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the same time is known as multitasking system. For example: Unix, Windows 2000.

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An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor is known as multi-processing operating system. For example: Linux, Unix, Windows 2000.

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Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer.

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It is an organization that identifies industrial and public requirements for national census standards and coordinates and manages their development, resolves national standards problems and ensures effective participation in international standardization.

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Computer forensics is a branch of forensic science pertaining to legal evidence found in computers and digital storage mediums. Computer forensics is also known as digital forensics.

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Output from computer processing, the work that has been completed, may take the form of a printed document, magnetic tape, or magnetic disk or diskette.

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Applications examples of 5th generation computers are : Defence-systems that could fend off attacks; Word processors that could be controlled by means of speech recognition; Programs that could translate documents from one language to another.

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Mainframe computers are designed to handle huge volumes of data, they support more than hundred users at same time. IBM 3090 is an example of mainframe computers.

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The third generation computers replaced transistors with 'Integrated Circuits'. These IC's were reliable, faster and relatively inexpensive.

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File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a network protocol used to exchange and manipulate files over a TCP computer network, such as the Internet. 

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Data from an upper layer protocol is encapsulated as packets/datagrams. The internet protocol is the principal communications protocol used for relaying datagrams(packets) across an internetwork.

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It is one of the core protocols of Internet Protocol Suite. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a set of rules (protocol) used along with the Internet Protocol (IP) to send data in the form of message units between computers over the Internet.

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Protocol is a set of rules for data representation, authentication and error detection.

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It is used in forwarding information. Example, on the internet, information is directed to various paths using routers.

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A gateway is a network point that acts as a entrance to another network. And thus able to connect different network together.

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In telecommunication networks, a bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local area network that uses the same protocol

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Repeaters regenerate the incoming signals to extend the range of local area networks. 

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Ethernet cards are the type of network adapters that supports ethernet for high speed network connections through cables over a local area network (LAN).  

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Modem ( modulator - demodulator ) can transmit and receive data over telephone or cable lines.

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The primary disadvantage of a star topology is the high dependence of the system on the functioning of the central hub. While the failure of an individual link only results in the isolation of a single node, the failure of the central hub renders the network inoperable, immediately isolating all nodes. The performance and scalability of the network also depend on the capabilities of the hub. Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the hub, and performance for the entire network is capped by its throughput.

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Network topology is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements(links, nodes, etc.) of a network, especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between nodes.

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A network interface card, more commonly referred to as a NIC, is a device that allows computers to be joined together in a LAN, or local area network. Networked computers communicate with each other using a given protocol or agreed-upon language for transmitting data packets between the different machines, known as nodes

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In network theory, the term node may refer a point in a network topology at which lines intersect or branch. A node is a connection point, either a redistribution point or a communication endpoint (some terminal equipment).  

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In information technology, a server is a computer program that provides services to other computer programs (and their users) in the same or other computers.

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In computer networks, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for data transfer rate - the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second). This kind of bandwidth is usually expressed in bits (of data) per second (bps). Occasionally, it's expressed as bytes per second (Bps).

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A transponder is a wireless communications, monitoring, or control device that picks up and automatically responds to an incoming signal.

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Cyber law is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and the World Wide Web.

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Microwave power transmission (MPT) is the use of microwaves to transmit power through outer space or the atmosphere without the need for wires. It is a sub-type of the more general wireless energy transfer methods. Microwave transmission also requires line of sight in order to work properly.

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The equipment is expensive and the number of fibers in the cables makes it difficult to narrow down captured transmissions to a particular connection.

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Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs specific operations such as addition, multiplication and conditional tests on the data in its registers.

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The first generation computers used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and machine language was used for giving instructions. The first generation computers used the concept of 'stored program'. The computers of this generation were very large in size and their programming was a difficult task.

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A microcomputer is a computer whose CPU is a microprocessor. A microprocessor is a processor whose all components are on a single integrated-circuit chip. Those are normally single-microprocessor, single user systems designed for perfprming basic operations like education, training, small business applications, playing games etc. Three major categories at microcomputers : PDAs, Desktop computers and workstations.

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The Von Neumann architecture is based on three key concepts that are :
1. Data and instructions (program) are stored in a single read-write memory.
2. The memory contents are addressable by locations.
3. Execution takes place in a sequential fashion i.e., from one instruction to the next unless modified explicitly.

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The peripherals are the devices that surround the system unit e.g., the keyboard, mouse, speakers, printers, monitors etc. are peripherals.

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Since computer's main memory (primary memory) is temporary, secondary memory space is needed to store data and information permanently for later use. Some most common secondary storage media are the floppy diskette, the hard disk and CD-RWs etc.

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Some key features of fifth generation computers are :
Parallel processing : In parallel processing, many processors are grouped to a function as one large group processor.
Superconductors : a superconductor is a conductor through which electricity can travel without any resistance resulting in faster transfer of information between the components of a computer.  

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Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) performs all arithmetical and logical operations. Numbers to be compared are sent from memory to ALU where comparison takes place and result is returned to the memory.

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CPU controls all input, output and processing. It also controls the storage unit.

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The analog part of hybrid computers is used for measuring heart beat, blood pressure, other vital signs and then the operation is carried out in digital fashion.

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Data in computer terminology mean raw facts and figures. For example, 'Rishabh', '1986', 'B', +25 are data. Data are processed to form information. Data are aggregated and summarized in various meaningful ways to form information.

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Processed data is said to be information.

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One gigabyte is exactly 1,073,741,824 bytes (or 2 to the power 10 MB). A gigabyte is usually described as 1 billion bytes of storage.

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Data is passed through the processing unit which gives information as the output.

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The logarithm of a number to a given base is the power of exponent to which the base must be raised in order to produce the number. John Napier invented the concept of logarithms.

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I KB=1024 bytes. This is according to the binary definition.

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They convert the data into digits (binary digits 0 and 1). They are much faster than analog computers and far more accurate.

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Analog computers operate by measuring rather than counting. In analog computer, continuous quantities are used.

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The analog part of hybrid computers is used for measuring heart beat,blood pressure, other vital signs and then operation is carried out in digital fashion.

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Analog computers are fast as calculations are done in parallel, but they are poor in accuracy.They are mostly used in engineering and scientific applications.

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Shell is the outermost part of the operating system and a program that acts as the command interpreter, which takes the commands from the user, interprets them and take action accordingly.

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GUI (Graphical User Interface) based operating systems have shells that offer graphical elements for interaction.

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When a system starts, the kernel is loaded and it remains there for the entire duration of the computer session as its services are required continuously.

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A process is a program in execution. It is also known as a task.

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Left click will select the item. A selected item is highlighted in some way but it does not result in the initiation of a process.

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Press mouse button and while pressing mouse to another location and then release the mouse button to move or resize the window.

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Each process is represented in the OS by a data block called Process Control Block. A PCB contains following information.
1. Process State
2. Program counter
3. CPU Register
4. Memory Limits
5. List of open files

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A folder is a location on some storage medium in which you can store files and other folders.

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The TIME command allows one to enter or change the system time.
The syntax is :
time [hours : minutes [:seconds [:hundreths]]]  Valid ranges are as follows:
hours = 0 - 23
minutes = 0 - 59
seconds = 0 - 59
hundredths = 0 - 99

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Depending on the size of the window, the entire application may not be visible. When this happens, the window is outfitted with Vertical and / or Horizontal Scroll bars. Each scroll bar contains a scroll box and two scroll arrows. Keyboard movement keys or mouse can be used to move scroll box up/down or left/right on a scroll bar to display other parts of the application.

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When a shortcut is double-clicked, the original item opens.

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Everything that relates to the current application is displayed in the workspace.

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The application software that manipulates images is known as Graphics Software and the software that incorporates images, text, sound, computer animation and the video sequences is known as multimedia software.

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The software that handles page layout by combining the functions of a traditional typesetter and a layout artist, is known as Desktop Publishing Software.

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The job with highest response ratio is preferred over others. When a short job arrives, its response ratio is high, so it is scheduled for execution immediately. A longer job would achieve high enough ratio only after a subsequent wait.

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File system refers to storage mechanism. Two popular file systems for Windows OS are FAT and NTFS.

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The application software that can create professional looking visual aids is called Presentation Graphics Software. Some most popular graphics, multimedia and presentation packages are Coreldraw, Power Point etc.

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In preemtive scheduling, a scheduling decision can be made even while the job is executing whereas in non-preemptive scheduling, a scheduling decision is made only after job completes its execution. Therefore, preemptive scheduling may force a job in execution to release the processor, so that execution of some other job can be undertaken.

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If page traffic is too much, this situation is called thrashing.

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It is the topmost horizontal bar of each application window and it contains the title of the open window. Apart from the title, it has several other elements also viz. application icon, active file name, minimize button, maximize/restore button and exit button.

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When ? is the last character in a primary or secondary name pattern, then it goes for one or no character matching otherwise it goes for exactly one character matching.

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The other syntax is :
erase[drive:] pathname /p

Here, /p switch causes del or erase to prompt you before a file is actually deleted. If /p is specified, file name is displayed and confirmation is asked as Delete Y/N? If you press Y, file is deleted, if N, delete operation is canceled.

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Full name of a file or directory consists of pathprimaryname.extension.

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The title bar is a part of the window that contains title and other elements.

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When we right click (press and release the right mouse button once), the shortcut menu is displayed.

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Most kernels were developed for specific operating systems such as Windows 98 and 2000. Mach kernel was developed for use with many operating systems.

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Supervisor allocates CPU to the scheduled process.

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Scheduling is the process of deciding how to commit resources between a variety of possible tasks.

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Memory manager accepts requests from the program to allocate and deallocate chunks of memory.

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An interrupt handler is also known as ISR (Interrupt Service Routine)

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It takes care that the individual processes do not interfere with each other and writes to their areas of memory.

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System calls are the functions that a programmer can call to perform the services of an operating system.

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The kernel provides the basic services for all other parts of the operating system.

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There are 2 other ways. We can also select multiple items by pressing and holding down the CTRL key and clicking the item we want, or by clicking the Select All on the edit menu.

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Recycle Bin is a holding place for files that we no longer need.

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Files in recycle bin can be retrieved by selecting and clicking restore command in the file menu.

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A file is permanently deleted and cannot be recalled or recovered when we delete a file from floppy drives.

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The requirement of the second user may differ from the first and the software may not fit in the requirements of a new user.

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Apart from composing the text, its layout, line drawings, charts and graphs can be created and included in the main body of text using standard programs and achieved using DTP package.

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If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume until the error is rectified.

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A computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of operations.

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The two components of a CPU are: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit.

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Strengths of a computer: Speed, High Storage Capacity, Accuracy

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Software can be classified into:


System software can be further divided into:
· Operating System
· Language Processors

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The different types of computers are:

·    Digital Computer

·    Analog Computer

·    Hybrid Computer

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The basic operations of a computer are:

(i) It takes input from the input device and stores it in memory.

(ii) It processes according to the instructions and convert input to output.

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Hardware: It represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e., the components that can be seen and touched.