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Examples of Language Processors are Compilers, Interpreters and Assemblers.

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 System software comprises of:
      a)  Operating System 
      b)  Language Processors   
      c)  Application Software

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Charles Babbage is known as the Father of Computer. He developed the Analytical Engine and the Difference Engine.

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 The full form of bits is binary digits. Each bit stores either 0 or 1. By their various combinations they are used to store data.

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 A memory cell can store a symbol from a group of symbols.

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 Volatile memory becomes blank once the computer is switched off.The main memory is volatile i.e. temporary in nature.

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Some of the input devices are:
1) Keyboard
2) Mouse
3) Magnetic ink character reader (MICR)
4) Optical mark reader (OMR)

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The basic computer structure consists of the following units:
a)  Input unit
b)  Central Processing Unit (CPU)
c)  Main i.e. Primary memory
d)  Output unit 
e)  Secondary Storage Device

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Arithmetical operations can be performed by +,-, *, and ( ) operators .
While, the logical operations are performed by <, >, =, <=, and >= operators. The result of logical operators can either be true or false.

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Washing clothes in a washing machine or baking cake in an oven are examples of Input Process & Output Cycle. The process can be broken down and shown as Input Process and Output Cycle.

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Example of computers being used in:

a) Complex area: Scientific research, medical or engineering
b) Simulation area: Games or learning flying planes, car driving

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The different types of Operating Systems are:
1) Single user OS
2) Distributed OS
3) Multiprocessing OS

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Firmware refers to the prewritten programs which are permanently stored in read only memory. They configure the computer and cannot be easily modified by the user.

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The advantages of computer data processing over manual data processing are as follows:
       1) It is faster

       2) It is accurate

       3) It is economic

       4) Diligence

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 Super computers have several processors running simultaneously. They can handle very complex calculations. They are the most powerful among digital computers.

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 An interpreter converts the source code into an object code, line by line. If there is an error in a present line, it halts and won't move to another line till the error is rectified.

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 There are two types of Application Software. These are:
       1) Customized Software
       2) General Purpose software.

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The limitations of the computer are as follows:

a) It has Zero IQ.

b) No decision power.

c) It works on the basis of the decision making powers of the programmers and follows their algorithms.

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Application software is a program designed for end users. It can be divided into two general classes: systems software and applications software. Application software includes database programs, word processors and spreadsheets.

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The functional components of a computer are –
1. Input Unit: It is formed by input devices attached to the computers. It is responsible for taking input and converting it into understandable form, i.e., binary code.
2.  Central Processing Unit: CPU is the brain of the computer. It guides, directs and governs its performance. The two components are: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit.
3.  Output Unit: Output unit is formed by output devices attached to a computer. The output coming from the CPU is in the form of electronic binary signals that needs to be converted in human understandable language.
4.  Memory: The term ‘memory’ identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word ‘storage’ is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks.

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ALU (Arithmetic-Logic Unit) is generally a subsection of the CPU (Central Processing Unit). While CPU is the master of a computer, ALU is a processing area optimised to handle mathematical computations and logic comparisons.

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 Memory is a storage device. It stores temporary data and instructions. The units of measuring are Bits, Bytes, Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB) and Gigabytes (GB).

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 The three types of computers are Digital computers, Analog computers and Hybrid computers.
      a) Digital computers deal with discrete quantities.
      b) Analog computers work by measuring physical quantities. For example, barometer, thermometer, they are unlike digital computers that count.

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First-Generation Computers (1949-55): These computers used vacuum-tubes. In this generation, machine-language was used. Computers used the concept of ‘stored program’. They were large in size and their programming was a difficult task. ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC and UNIVAC-I are examples of first-generation.

Second-Generation Computers (1956-65): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in these computers. The transistor was far superior to vacuum tube and allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, but still it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. However, the second generation still relied on punch-cards for input and printouts for output.

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It is a computer whose CPU is a microprocessor. A microprocessor is a processor whose all components are on a single integrated circuit chip. These are also called single-user systems designed for performing basic operations like educational, training, small-business applications etc. IBM PCs, Apple Mac, IBM PS/2 are examples of microcomputers.

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There are three different types of computers according to the principles of operation. They are:
• Analog Computer
• Digital Computer
• Hybrid Computer

Digital computers are further classified into two: 
• Purpose-wise 
• Size-wise and Performance-wise

Purpose-wise computers are further divided into:
• Special-purpose computers
• General-purpose computers

Special-purpose computers are designed to perform a specific task. The instructions to carry out the task are permanently stored in the machine.

General-purpose computers are designed to work on different types of programs and thus, can be used in countless applications.

Size-wise and performance-wise digital computers can be classified into following types:
• Embedded computers
• Microcomputers
• Minicomputers
• Mainframe computers 
• Supercomputers

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In Windows XP, start button and taskbar are always present on the desktop.

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Application window contains an open application i.e., running application such as Word or Paint.

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The language processors process a high-level language program into a language, understandable to the computer.

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Application software is the set of programs necessary to carry out operations for a specified application.

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Some general softwares that are designed to be used by individual users in the manner it suits their needs and requirements are called packages.

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Presentation graphics is a type of graphics software used to create visual aids, which can be computer images, paper printouts, or photographic transparencies.

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Computer performs the functions which are fed into the system. It cannot take decision on its own.

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Charles Babbage invented Punched card. Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley invented transistor in 1946.

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PACE was developed by Hyderabad based advanced numerical research and analysis group.

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A multiprocessing operating system such as Window NT refers to the ability to support more than one processor. It refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a system.

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Compiler reports all the errors of the program along with the line numbers. After all the errors are removed, the program is recompiled.

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Language processors convert HLL into machine language or language understandable to the computer.

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The primary goal of an operating system is to make the computer system convenient to use and the secondary goal is to use computer hardware in an efficient manner.

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PROM is Programmable Read Only Memory that can be programmed once. Operations to be performed are permanent and cannot be altered.

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Speech synthesizer is an output device. The function of output device is to convert the output from CPU into the form, which can be easily understood by human beings.

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The input devices attached to the computer form input unit. Examples: keyboard, CPU, mouse, camera etc.

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Liveware is the term generally used for the people who are associated with and for the people who are benefited from the computer system.

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Data is a collection of raw facts and figures which the user needs.

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Data is raw facts and information represents meaningful data. When the raw facts are processed and put in a form so that they can be used in various purposes, then it is information.

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Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently is known as multithreading system. For example, Linux, Unix.

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Analog computers measure physical quantities like voltage, temperature etc.

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1 KB=1024 Bytes
This is according to the binary definition.

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One TB (Terabyte) means 2¹⁰ GB i.e., 1024 GB.

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The address bus transports memory addresses which the processor wants to access in order to read or write.

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A group of 8 bits is called a byte and a group of 4 bits is called a nibble.

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One megabyte means 2¹⁰ KB i.e., 1024*1024 bytes.

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The supercomputer CRAY XMP-14, the one India imported from US in 1987, has a capacity of 60 million flops or 60 mega flops.

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In analog computers, continuous quantities are used. Computations are carried out with physical quantities such as voltage, length, current, temperature etc. The devices that measure such quantities are analog devices e.g., voltmeter, ammeter.

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A microcomputer is a computer whose CPU is a microprocessor.

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John Napier (1550 – 1617) used logs to transform multiplication problem to addition problem.The logs become the basis for slide rule. Napier also devised a set of numbering rods known as Napier’s Bones. Multiplication and division could be performed by these Bones.

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Data is raw facts and figures, whereas information is processed data.

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Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented a machine in 1642 made up of gears which was used for adding numbers quickly. This machine was named as Adding Machine (also known as Pascaline) and was capable of addition and subtraction.

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One megabyte is equal to 1024* 1024 bytes.

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The first generation computers used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and machine language was used for giving instructions. The first generation computers used the concept of 'stored program'. The computers of this generation were very large in size and their programming was a difficult task.

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In stored program concept, data and instructions are stored in a single read-write memory.

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Some examples of peripheral devices are: printers, scanners, disk drives, etc.

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It is the ability of an entity to carry out multiple tasks simultaneously.

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Prof. Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973) in U.S.A. constructed in 1943 an electromechanical computer named Mark - I which could multiply two 10-digit number in 5 seconds - a record at that time. Mark-I was the first machine which could perform according to pre programmed instructions automaticallywithout any manual interference. This was the first operational general purpose computer.

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A memory cell may be defined as a device which can store a symbol selected from a set of symbols.

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The combination of operating system and language processor is called System Software.

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Operating System is an interface between the user and the hardware.

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Processed data is called information.

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Binary code is a way of representing text by the use of binary number system, which consists of only two digits, i.e., 0 and 1.

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Bytecode is a computer object code which is processed by a program.

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Bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer.

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Data is a collection of raw facts and figures.

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Software can be a system software or application software.

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Minimize, maximize, restore and close are the four window control buttons.

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We can easily switch to a different window by clicking its taskbar button.

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We should not turn off the computer until we see a message displaying that shut down is complete otherwise there is a risk of losing information.

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Booting is a bootstrapping process that starts an operating system when the user turns on a computer system.

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Hardware represents the components that can be seen and touched. For example, input devices, output devices, floppy disk etc.

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System software controls the internal operations like reading data from input devices and transmitting processed information to the output devices.

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When we click on Control Panel, we get various options like mouse, folders, add hardware, display, internet options etc. and we can alter or change the settings.

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Windows Explorer gives us a view of the computer’s contents as a hierarchy or a “ tree ”.

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We open a file or folder to view its contents.

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Icons are the pretty pictures representing the window elements like files, folders, shortcuts etc.

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Directories or folders let you group your files in convenient categories. These directories in turn may contain other directories (sub-directories). This is multilevel or hierarchical directory system.

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Wildcards are useful in searching files because they give flexibility in specifying paths and files.

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For example, A*.exe means A followed by any number of characters but length should not exceed 8 in number.

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My Computer is helpful if we want to view the contents of a single folder or drive.

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Selection of an item does not result in an initiation; single left click will select an item whereas double left click will choose an item.

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The desktop may contain a background, one or more active or inactive windows, a taskbar and icons.

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The menu bar lists the menus available for that application.

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Everything that relates to the current application is displayed in the workspace.

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Kernel is the central component of most computer operating system. It has complete control over everything that occurs in the system.

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Directories group your files in convienient categories. These directories, in turn, may contain other directories (referred to as subdirectories). This organised file structure is referred to as multilevel or hierarchical directory system.

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Loading of DOS into main memory involves loading of three essential files of DOS viz. IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS and COMMAND.COM into the main memory.

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We click start-> Settings-> Control Panel to change system settings.

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The area below the title bar in windows is called the workspace. Everything that relates to the current application is displayed in the workspace.

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Throughput = The number of jobs completed / Total time taken to complete the jobs

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Secondary file name is also called File Extension. It is 3 character long. Eg: cpp, bas, etc.

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The default drive is the disk drive which computer accesses.