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In operator overloading, a single function name can be used to handle different number and different types of arguments.

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In procedural programming, the problem is viewed as a sequence of things to be done such as reading, calculating and printing.

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High level language use constructs for sequence, selection(decision) and iteration(looping).

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Alan Kay is one of the promoters of the object–oriented paradigm.

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HLLs are more close to the programmer, as these offer English like keywords and programming constructs (sequence, selection, iteration).

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Data structured programming or Jackson structured programming is based on aligning data structures with program structures.

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Ada is an object-based language. Simula(1967) is accepted as first object-oriented language.

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Structured programming is a sub-discipline of procedural programming. It is famous for removing reliance on GOTO statements.

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At low level, structured programs are often composed of simple, hierarchical program flow structures.

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Object oriented programming is a type of programming in which the programmer defines the data types of a data structure and associated operations. To perform an object oriented programming, one needs an object oriented programming language (OOPL).

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Languages that support classes but not polymorphism are object based languages.

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The property by which one class (subclass) inherits the properties of super class is known as inheritance. This is a relationship between sub class (derived class) and super class (base class).

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Concrete class is the derived class that implements all the missing functionalities which are not implemented in the base class or abstract class.

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Program structure refers to how a program should be. The program structure is decided using top-down approach or any other popular approach. The program representation refers to its presentation style so that the program becomes more readable and presentable.

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Echo printing is printing of the input data, as they are read.

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Sometimes, even if you don't encounter any error during compile-time and run-time, your program does not provide the correct result. This is because of the programmer's mistaken analysis of the problem he or she is trying to solve. Such errors are logical errors.

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Errors that occur during the execution of a program are run-time errors. These are harder to detect errors. Some run-time errors stop the execution of the program which is then called program "crashed" or "abnormally terminated".

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An error, sometimes called 'a bug', is anything in the code that prevents a program from compiling and running correctly.

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A good program should be user friendly. The user should not be concerned about what is happening inside the program. The program should interact with user by understandable messages and user's work should be as low as possible. The users should only be responsible for providing the input data values and rest everything should the program's responsibility. The output provided by the program should also be easily understandable and presentable.

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A program is needed to transform input(s) into output(s). A program development process is a step by step process where each stage contributes to building of an effective and efficient program. There are four stages in the program development process as given below:
1. Crack the problem.
2. Code the algorithm.
3. Compile the program.
4. Execute the program.

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Comments play a very important role as they provide internal documentation of a program. Indentation makes the statements clear and readable. Sometimes, comments and indentation are not used to save on program writing time, but remember, there should not be any compromise on readability and understandability.

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When the algorithm is translated into a program (called source code) using some programming language, it is called coding. The coded program is then fed into the computer for further processing.

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The ability of a program, to recover following an error and to continue operating within its enviornment, is called robustness.

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To create a new program or to improve an existing one, you must recognise that a problem or need for improvement does exit. Therefore, under this step you must understand the problem well so as to figure out "what is required or desired out of the proposed solution?" and hence to ascertain "what it is that is to be done?"

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There are four stages in the program development process as given below:
1. Crack the problem : In first stage, the problem is cracked and an algorithm is formulated which gives the solution for the problem.
2. Code the algorithm : In this stage, the algorithm is translated into a program using some programming language. This process is called coding. The coded program is then fed into the computer for further processing.
3. Compile the program : After feeding the program, next step is to compile it. Compilation is a process to convert the source code into the object code.
4. Execute the program : After compilation of an errorfree program, the program is executed. This phase is called run-time, the phase of program execution during which program instructions are carried out.

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Program maintenance refers to the modification of a program after it has been completed, in order to meet changing requirements or to take care of errors that show up. There could be four kinds of maintenance: Corrective Maintenance, Adaptive Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance and Perfective Maintenance.

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Testing is the process of finding errors in a program and debugging is the process of correcting errors found during the testing process.

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Modules make information easily accessible to the specific user for which they were prepared and they reduce the costs of production and maintenance. The aggregation of modules and their deal would depend upon :
1. Complexity of system.
2. Technical specification of user
3. People involved in development and use
4. Expected life of documentation.

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During compilation, the source code i.e., the code ine the programming language is converted into the object code i.e., the code in machine language. For compilation, appropriate compiler is used which can translate the program written in a specific programming language.

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Prologues are the comments in the beginning of a program that summarises the purpose of the program.

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Comments play a very important role as they provide internal documentation of a program. Indentation makes the statements clear and readable. Sometimes, comments and indentation are not used to save on program writing time, but remember, there should not be any compromise on readability and understandability.

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Robustness is the ability to recover an error and continue operating within the environment.

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Logical errors arise because of the programmer's mistaken analysis of the problem he or she is trying to solve. Such errors are logical errors.

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When program formatting is done to make a program more readable, it is called prettyprinting. Prettyprinting is encouraged by C++ relaxed rules about blank spaces and lines, we can convey the logical structure of a program at a glance.

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Syntax errors occur when rules of a programming langugage are misused i.e., when a grammatical rule of C++ is violated.

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To produce robust programs, we need a code which can handle incorrect data or incorrect operations. This code is guard code.

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Semantic errors occur when statements are not meaningful.

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For compiled languages, syntax error occurs strictly at compile time. For interpreted languages, syntax errors can not be detected until run time.

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Identifiers must begin with a letter or underscore. Only letters (A-Z, a-z), digits(0-9), or underscore( _ ) may follow the initial letter.

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Prettyprinting is encouraged by C++ relaxed rules about blank spaces and lines.

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When grammatical rules of C++ are violated, they result in syntax errors.

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Comments are the explanatory text, information embedded in the source code of a program.

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Comments are used for explanatory text, or information embedded in the source program.

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Flow diagram includes flow chart, control flow diagram, flow map, data flow diagram, etc.

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Formatting style increases readability of a program, it has no effect on the compiler.

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Testing is finding errors in the program, and debugging means to rectify or fix the error.

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They explain the role and purpose of identifiers and enhance program understanding.

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Changes in the environment in which an information system operates may also lead to system maintenance.

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Semantics refers to the set of rules which give the meaning of a statement. Here, the statement will result in a semantical error as an expression cannot come on the left side of an assignment statement.

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Source code is converted to machine code (object code), which is understandable by machine.

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There can be four kinds of maintenance: corrective maintenance, adaptive maintenance, preventive maintenance and perfective maintenance.

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Data preprocessing describes any type of process performed on raw data to prepare it for another processing procedure. Post processing means any type of process performed on the output obtained after one processing procedure.

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A good programmer requires sound technical skills, analytical and problem solving skills, knowledge of languages, patience and should be a hard worker.

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To make the program readable and understandable, use of free formatting should be avoided and indentation and blank lines and spaces should be used while writing a program. 

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Printing of the input data, as they are read, is called echo printing. Whereas, when program formatting is done to make a program more readable, it is called pretty printing.

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The code which can handle exceptional data errors and operational errors is called guard code.

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Though formatting style does not make a difference for the compiler but a reader faces a great difficulty in understanding the program. Therefore, use of free formatting should be avoided and indentation and blank lines, spaces should be used while writing a program. Prettyprinting is encouraged by C++ relaxed rules about blank spaces and lines, we can convey the logical structure of a program at a glance.

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Formatting style does not make a difference for the compiler but a reader faces a great difficulty in understanding the program. Therefore, use of free formatting should be avoided and indentation and blank lines, spaces should be used while writing a program.

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Documentation refers to written descriptions, specifications, design, code and comment, internal and external to a program, which make a program more understandable, readable and more easily modifiable.

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The logical sequence of precise steps that solve a given problem is called an algorithm. A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds and their order by connecting these with arrows.

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Identifiers identify different parts of a program.Therefore, they should have meaningful names.

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Every step that is performed before compilation comes under the preprocessor stage.

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Internal documentation of the program uses both comments and indentation. The comments are the lines ignored by the compiler. They are used to program description. 

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Syntax errors occur when rules of a programming language are misused i.e., when a grammatical rule of C++ is violated. Semantics refers to the set of rules which give the meaning of a statement.

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A good program should be reliable i.e., it must be able to handle unexpected situations like wrong data or no data. The program should display proper error messages.

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Syntax errors occur when rules of a programming language are misused i.e., when a grammatical rule of C++ is violated.

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Prologue also means an introductory speech, or giving background information about a topic.

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Logical errors make the program compile and run but do not give correct result. Algorithm and thus the program code, both should be based on correct logic.

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Semantics refers to the set of rules which give the meaning of a statement.

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In free formatting style, any number of statements can be written in one line using a statement separator.

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Logical errors are because of the programmer's mistaken analysis of the problem he is trying to solve.

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Modules make information easy to specific user for whom they are prepared. They reduce costs of production and maintenance.

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Following guidelines should be followed while dealing with identifers:
1. Assign meaningful names for all identifers viz. variables, functions and procedures, etc.
2. Do not use similar looking names e.g., manage, manager.
3. Always assign names to scalar constants when it helps in clarity and readability.

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It displays proper error messages, whenever situations like wrong data, or no data occur.

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It may include the history of the program's development and subsequent modifications, the top-down design and user's manuals.

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Self-documenting code is a source code that uses meaningful identifier-names.

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The ability of a program to recover following an error and to continue operating within its environment is called robustness.

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Free formatting style in C++ means that a number of statements can be written in one line using statement seperator.
For example:
int main( ) { if { i== 50) cout<< i;<< return 0;}

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Portability refers to programs that we move from one computer to another without having to make any changes is a portable program.

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Testing is the process of finding errors  in a program and then debug the errors found during testing process. Some programs support daily activities and decisions. The program should run correctly and free of errors.

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Prologues refer to the comments at the beginning of a program that summarizes the purpose of the program. 
For example,
1) /*   files used       employees files (input file)
                              salary file (output file) */

2) /* validation employee number against enployee master file */

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Software designing should meet two conditions:-   
Firstly, the program structure (using top down approach or any other popular approach) and secondly, good program representation.
The program presentation style should be readable, easily tested, can be understood and easily checked for errors i.e., debugging and modifying it, should also be easy, such that, there is minimum wastage of time, effort and cost.

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The technical documentation is of two types:
1. External documentation: consists of the written information that is outside the body of the source code. It may include the history of the program's development and subsequent modifications, the top-down design, "architectural" diagrams of the program's structures and user's manuals.
2. Internal documentation: includes comments, self-documenting code and prettyprinting. The goal of all these features is to make program readable, understandable and easily modifiable.

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The modules accessible to specific users are :-

1. Users Manual
2. Input Preparation Manual
3. Operations Manual
4. Equipment Manual
5. Programmer Manual
6. Program Manual
7. Systems manual
8. Standards Manual

 Manuals reduce the costs of production and maintenance.

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These occur when the program is being executed. These errors are harder to detect. Some of them can stop the execution of a program which is then called program "crashed" or "abnormally terminated". The program should be robust to recover and continue following the error.

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Programs having logical errors do not output the correct result. These errors are not shown at compile time or run time. They occur due to programmers mistake in analyses of the problem that is to be solved. The reasons could be various for e.g., using an incorrect algorithm.

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A well written program structure should follow top-down approach or any other popular approach. Under this, the main task is divided in clear cut logical subtasks i.e., subroutines. Decide local and global variables, hiding information etc. Test each subroutine and then join all of them to make an overall program structure.

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Comments are helpful in :-
a) Starting a program using comment which highlights the purpose of the program. 
b) Start every function with comment describing the purpose of the function.
c) For describing the purpose of defining a variable, where self documentation is not possible.

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To evalute a program, following guidelines should be followed:-
 i) The program should serve the purpose for which it has been written. 
 ii) Easy to a) understand – user friendly b) maintain and c) debug.
 iii) Optimize computer resources in terms of CPU time and Memory. 
 iv) Gracefully exit with appropriate message.

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Programs after being compiled are linked with the library to create execution file. It is possible that the program may not link with the library. The program may be stored in separate files and the files may be compiled separately. The files are linked together. Linker error may arise because of some mis-spelling. For e.g., Square( ) and Squar( ) are spelled differently in two separate places.

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Resources of the computer can be optimized  by an efficiently written  program. The resources are CPU time and RAM. A properly designed algorithm can optimize resources.
For example, a*2 and a+a will give the same result but the second method is more efficient.

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The conditional compilation allow sections of code to be selectively included for or excluded from compilation, depending on programmer-specified conditions being satisfied. It is usually used as a portability tool for making the program code specific to hardware and software.

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One should: 
a)  Assign meaningful names for all identifiers ie., variables,functions, procedures etc. 
b)  Avoid similar looking names.
c)  Always assign names to scalar constants when it helps in clarity and readability.

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The greater abstraction and hiding details in a high level language is generally intended to make the language more user friendly. It then includes concepts from the problem domain instead of those of the machine used.

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In assembly language, the instructions are written using symbolic names for machine operations and operands make programming less tedious than machine language programming.

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Machine language is the only language, which computer can execute directly. It is also called binary language as it is a combination of 0’s and 1’s.

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Abstraction focuses on the details of an object leaving behind the implementation details, which are not essential.

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Derived classes inherit properties, including the methods of old class, which are called base class or super class.

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In computer science, an object code, or an object file, is the representation of the code that a compiler or an assembler generates by processing a source code file.

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Procedural languages are used in the traditional programming that is based on the algorithms.