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A dot matrix is a printer that represents each character as a pattern of dots from a dot matrix.

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The iostream is a header file which is used for input/output in the C++ programming language. It is a part of the C++ standard library.

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The break command terminates the execution of the innermost enclosing loop, causing execution to resume after the nearest done statement. The continue command causes execution to resume at the while, until or for statement, which begins the loop containing the continue command.

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An algorithm is a procedure or formula for solving a problem.

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List of manuals include user, input preparation, operations, equipment, programmer, program, systems and standard module.

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Manuals make information easily accessible to a specific user for which they were prepared and they reduced the costs of production and maintenance.

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Changes in environment due to information system operations may lead to system maintenance. This maintenance is known as adaptive maintenance.

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When a program after completion, is put to operations, some errors might show up because of some unexpected situations and untested areas. Such errors are fixed and this type of maintenance is known as corrective maintenance.

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If possible errors could be anticipated before they actually occur, the maintenance could be done to avoid them.

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There are four kinds of maintenance: corrective maintenance, adaptive maintenance, preventive maintenance and perfective maintenance.

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The process of exercising software to verify that it satisfies specified requirements and to detect errors in it is known as testing.

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Debugging is a methodical process of finding and reducing the number of bugs, or defects, in a computer program.

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The process of exercising software to verify that it satisfies specified requirements and detect errors in it is known as testing. Maximum cost is spent on this stage only.

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DVD-RW stands for Digital Video Disk – Rewritable. We can erase and read many times on them.

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A DVD is also called Super Density disk (SD) and can hold upto 17 gigabytes of data or four hours of movies on a slide.

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The AGP port is used to connect to graphic card that provides high speed video performance.

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EPROM can be erased as well as reprogrammed.

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In Random Access Memory (RAM), the memory cells can be accessed for information transfer from any desired random location.

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Memories that can be both read from and written into are called read-write memories.

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Auxiliary memory is a high-speed memory that is in a large mainframe or supercomputer. It is not directly addressable by the central processing unit and is connected to the main memory by a high-speed data channel.

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RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are the main memories, also called as primary memory. Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard drives and floppy disks, optical drives and magnetic tapes.

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The compact disk or CDs are optical media. Similarly, DVD is also an optical storage device that looks the same as a compact disk but is able to hold about 15 times more information than CD.

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It is a type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against an ink ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape.

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The floppy disk is divided into many concentric circles called tracks; each track is further sub-divided into smaller sections called sectors.

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Bluetooth provides agreement at the protocol level, where products have to agree on:

• when bits are sent.
• how many will be sent at a time.
• how the parties in a conversation can be sure that the message received is same as the message sent.

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CPU consists of the Control Unit (CU), which controls the entire operation being carried out and the Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU), which performs the arithmetic and logical operations.

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VDU: Visual Display Unit, simply a monitor or display, is a piece of electrical equipment, which displays images generated from the video output of devices such as computers, without producing a permanent record.

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The 'k' represents the number of address lines that provide a binary number of k bits, which specify the address of a particular word chosen among the available 2^k inside the memory.

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Electromagnetic printers, thermal printers, electrostatic printers, inkjet printers and laser printers are all examples of non-impact printers.

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Every task follows IPO cycle. That is, a computer takes certain data, processes data, outputs information and then saves the information.

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i) Impact printers are used for economical printing of data.
ii) Plotters are used for high quality drawing.

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OCR - Optical Character Reader
OMR - Optical Mark Reader

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The time taken to access data from a magnetic disk depends upon seek time and latency.

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A bus carries information from one place to another. A bus may carry data or address or control information. Thus, we can say various components of the computer interact with one another through bus.

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The non-impact printers have more speed compared to their impact-counterpart. Also, non-impact printers offer high quality output but at higher cost. On the other hand, impact printers are less expensive but they do not offer quality output.

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RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It can store information and have new information stored over it later. RAM is volatile in nature, i.e., any unsaved data is lost when power is switched off.
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It performs the read operation only; it does not have a write capability. It is non-volatile.

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Memories can be read from or written into:

• Memories that can be both read from and written into are called read-write memories.
• Some memories have program or data permanently stored and are called read-only memories.

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1. TFT-LCD (Thin Film Transistor-Liquid Crystal Display) is a variant of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), which uses Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) technology to improve image quality. 
2. TFT-LCD is one type of active matrix LCD, though it is usually synonymous with LCD. It is used in both flat panel displays and projectors.
3. With TFT, power consumption is still lesser and image can be screened on the screen from even 180 degrees.

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LCD or Liquid Crystal Display is the latest technology being used in TV or computer screens.

1. The Cathode Ray Tube monitors are bigger in size and weight of the tubes. An equivalent sized LCD monitor is upwards of 80% smaller in size and weight compared to a CRT tube.
2. The larger the screen, the bigger the size difference.
3. The other major drawback deals with the power consumption. The energy needed for the electron beam means that the monitors consume and generate a lot more heat than the LCD monitors.

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Since, memory/RAM is much faster than a disk, so on writing data to the disk, it goes to the cache and the task is quickly reported as complete, thus freeing the machine for the next task. But the data is then written from the cache to the disk without using any of the machine resources.
    A similar process happens when data is read from a disk. Often a disk is able to retrieve data faster than the PC can handle it. It is therefore written to the cache, where the PC can read it on demand but the disk itself is already idle and awaiting for the next instruction.

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Size of memory=1024 x 32= 32768 bits.  ( 1024=2¹⁰ )
Therefore, number of address input signal lines = 10. 
Number of input/output data signal lines = 32.

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Light pen: It is used to identify a specific location on the screen. It is also used to draw images on the screen.
Track ball: It is used to move an object on the screen.

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Before the computer can save information onto a blank floppy disk, it must be formatted. Floppy usually stores the data in a magnetic medium where these datas are sticked on. Deletion alone can’t make it emptied fully, since some backup data will be sticking there.  We can also format a previously used disk to erase all existing information on the disk.

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When data is read from the primary memory, the contents of the memory word remain the same; they do not get altered. Therefore, a primary memory is termed as a non-destructive read memory.

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The cache memory lies between the microprocessor and the system RAM. It is used as a buffer to reduce the time of memory access. There are two levels to this memory called L1 (level 1) and L2 (level 2). 

Level 1 (Primary Cache): It is the fastest memory on the PC and is referred to as 'internal' cache. It is built directly into the processor itself. This cache memory is very small, ranging from 8 KB to 64 KB and runs at the same speed as the processor. 
Level 2 (Secondary Cache): It is referred to as 'external' cache and is larger and slightly slower. It is used to catch recent accesses that are not caught by the level 1 cache, and is usually 64 KB to 2 MB in size. A level 2 cache is usually found either on the motherboard or a daughter board that inserts into the motherboard.

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A basic memory system is shown here: 
k address lines are decoded to address 2^k words of memory.
Each word is n bits.
Read and Write are single control lines defining the simplest of memory operations.

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The latest version of mouse is an optical mouse.

1. An optical mouse is an advanced computer-pointing device that uses a light-emitting diode (LED), an optical sensor and digital signal processing (DSP) in place of the traditional mouse ball and electromechanical transducer.
2. Movement is detected by sensing changes in reflected light, rather than by interpreting the motion of a rolling sphere.
3. In practice, an optical mouse does not need cleaning, because it has no moving parts.
4. If the device is used with the proper surface, sensing is more precise than is possible with any pointing device using the old electromechanical design.
5. An asset in graphics applications making computer operation easier in general.
6. It also eliminates mechanical fatigue and failure.

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Hard disks store information on flat, circular disks called platters, which are rigid and have a magnetic coating on both sides, in which the digital data is stored. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm, so that they cannot move independently. To store data on the hard disk, the read/write heads convert bits of digital data into magnetic pulses and then reverse the process to read data from the disk.

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Memory is something that stores, preserves and recalls data when needed. It is a collection of storage cells capable of storing binary information together. Computer memory stores data that is accessed by the Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Memories can be read from or written into:

• Memories that can be both read from and written into are called read-write memories (RAM).
• Some memories have program or data permanently stored and are called read-only memories (ROM).

RAM or Random Access Memory: RAM allows the system to access any data stored in the memory in any location at any time. This memory is often referred to as volatile (power dependent), i.e., when the power is isolated the data is lost.

Communication is achieved through data input and output lines, address selection lines, and control lines that specify the direction of transfer.

RAM is further divided into :
1)     Dynamic RAM
2)     Static RAM

Dynamic RAMs store information in integrated circuits that contain capacitors. As capacitors lose their charge over time, dynamic RAM boards must include logic to “refresh” (recharge) the RAM chips as many as thousand times a second. While a dynamic RAM is being refreshed, the processor cannot read it.

SRAM (static RAM) retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied. Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed. A static RAM is faster than DRAM but it is expensive.

ROM or Read Only Memory: ROM is a type of memory that normally can only be read. It is capable of holding data but cannot write to or modify data. Read only memories (ROMs) are used in computer systems to provide a permanent storage of program instructions.
     ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. It is referred to as being non-volatile, whereas RAM is volatile. Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM containing program that boots the computer. ROMs are used extensively in calculators and peripheral devices such as, laser printers. 

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A keyboard is connected to a purple port while for a mouse it is green in colour.
The ports used for this purpose are known as PS/2 or Personal System/2 ports.

• The PS/2 connector is used for connecting some keyboards and mice to a PC compatible computer system.
• Its name comes from the IBM Personal System/2series of personal computers, with which it was introduced in 1987.
• It has 6 pins and is circular in shape.
• It is designed to accept a specific input.
• A keyboard and a mouse connection is colour coded so that it becomes easy for the user.

The concept is similar to the colour-coded composite audio/video connections on the back of a TV, which uses red, yellow or white connectors.

SOLUTION

A plotter works closely with a computer's imaging software to produce a final picture or object. 

1. Firstly, enter the appropriate coordinates where you want the image to appear on the paper.
2. Modern software allows the user to accomplish this goal very easily by drawing lines and images with the imaging software.
3. Once the schematics for the image are complete, the computer downloads the coordinates to the plotter, which interprets the code and calculates the most efficient path for the pen and paper.

Advantages of plotters:

Disadvantages of plotters:
1. They are slower than printers.
2. Not suitable for text.
3. Limited detail can be produced.

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A keyboard is a data input device for computers; arrangement of keys is modelled after the typewriter keyboard.

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Lawrence Peter statement means that a systematic approach in software design should be adopted to develop an acceptable and efficient solution.

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In computer science, portability is the process of adapting software so that, an executable program can be created for a computing environment that, is different from the one for which it was originally designed.

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The iomanip.h header file contains a definition for a macro IOMANIPdeclare().The IOMANIPdeclare() takes a type name as an argument and creates a series of classes you can use to define manipulators, for a given kind of stream.

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It should be int R, W = 90. The variable list should be separated using commas.

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The loop is initialized with 1 and continues up to 9 as i is less than 10.

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Documentation should describe the who, what, when, where and how of each system application.

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The statement means that maintenance time is totally unnecessary because, little planning and testing can avoid maintenance time.

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In an information technology world, no technology has proved permanent. Every year, new technologies come with new features, new facilities. Maintenance in order to install new features is known as perfective maintenance.

SOLUTION

The print and echo are commands used to output information to the visitors screen (on the web page). Both do the same job, so it usually comes down to a matter of personal preference on which one you like to use.

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A program must anticipate situations of data type conflict and all other incompatibilities, which result in run time errors and stop the program. The focus of robustness is the interaction with the user and the handling of error messages.

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The system information panel provides real time monitoring of processor, memory and disk activity.

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Program maintenance refers to the modification of a program after it has been completed, in order to meet changing requirements or to take care of errors that show up. There could be four kinds of maintenance: Corrective Maintenance, Adaptive Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance and Perfective Maintenance,

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Changes in the environment in which an information system operates may also lead to system maintenance. For example, new laws or government regulation may require a company to process new reports, or markets conditions, on which the system depends, change or company's policies may change. To accomodate changing needs, time to time, maintenance is done and is called adaptive maintenance.

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Self documentation code is the source code that uses meaningful names for constants, variables and subprogram identifiers to clarify their meaning in the program.

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A program written in good style is easily understandable to a reader, therefore, is a good program. A good program not only efficiently solves the given problem but also presents itself well. The use of free formatting should be avoided and indentation and blank lines, spaces should be used while writing a program.

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Semantics errors occur when statements are not meaningful. For instance, 'Ravi plays Piano' is syntactically and semantically correct as it has some meaning but the statement 'Piano plays Ravi' is syntactically correct (as the grammar is correct) but semantically incorrect.

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The explanatory comments should be inserted wherever applicable since they explain the role and purpose of other identifers (variable, constants) and statement(s).

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After feeding the program, next step is to compile it. Compilation is the process to convert the source code (code written in the programming language) into the object code (code in the machine language). For compilation, appropriate compiler is used which can translate the program written in a specific programming language.

SOLUTION

In top-down design, also called divide and conquer, firstly the major steps or sub-problems are listed, that need to be solved, then the original problem is solved by solving each of its sub-problems.

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Free formatting style refers to any number of statements written in one line using a statement separator, whereas, prettyprinting gives a logical structure of a program.

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A program written in good style is easily understandable to a reader, therefore, is a good program. A good program not only efficiently solves the given problem but also presents itself well. The use of free formatting should be avoided and indentation and blank lines, spaces should be used while writing a program.
The characteristics of a good program are :
1. Effective and efficient
2. User friendly
3. Self-documenting code
4. Reliable
5. Portable

SOLUTION

Object oriented systems use bottom up approach. It uses concept of objects and classes.

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Derived classes inherit properties including the methods of old class, which are called base class or super class.

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Derived classes (sub-classes) inherit the properties of a base class (super class).

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Reusability is using the already tested and saved previous code again. It’s advantages are faster development time, easier maintenance, and easy to extend.

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In computer science, an object code or an object file is the representation of the code that a compiler or an assembler generates by processing a source code file.

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It is the way of combining both data and the functions that operate on that data under a single unit.

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A class is a template or blue-print representing a group of objects that share common properties.

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The code can only be reused in object oriented programming approach, which uses the concept of objects and classes.

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An object represents an entity that can store data and has its interface through functions. For example, if orange is an object, then it’s behaviour is that it is juicy and it tastes sweet sour.

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The characteristics of an object are represented by its data. For example, if orange is an object, then its colour and shape are data.

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The drawbacks of procedural and modular programming are removed by object oriented programming technique. So, only object oriented can model the real world well.

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A program is a set of instructions which tells the computer the task it has to perform.

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A module is a set of related procedures with the data they manipulate.

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Dynamic binding refers to the case, where compiler is not able to resolve the call at the compiled time and the binding is done at run time only.

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Procedural languages are used in the traditional programming that is based on the algorithms.

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Polymorphism is the ability for a message or data to be processed in more than one form.

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An object is an instance of a class. It is the root of class hierarchy and the process of creating it is called instantiation.

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Object is the root of class hierarchy. It is a discrete entity with some characteristics and behaviour.

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Grouping a number of functions together into a larger entity is called module.

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A class is a group of objects that share common properties and relationships. It represents a group of similar objects.

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a. Self documenting code is the source code that uses meaningful names for constants, variables and subprogram identifers to clarify their meaning in the program.
b. Prettyprinting refers to program formatting to make a program more readable. It is encouraged by C++ relaxed rules about blank spaces and lines, we can convey the logical structure of a program at a glance. 

SOLUTION

There are four stages in program development process as given below:
1. Crack the problem: In the first stage, the problem is cracked and an algorithm is formulated which gives the solution for the problem.
2. Code the algorithm: In this stage, the algorithm is translated into a program (called source code) using some programming language. This process is called coding. The coded program is then fed into the computer for further processing. 
3. Compile the program: After feeding the program, next step is to compile it. Compilation is a process to convert the source code into the object code. For compilation, appropriate compiler is used which can translate the program written in a specific programming language.
4. Execute the program: After compilation of an error free program, the program is executed. This phase is called run-time, the phase of program execution during which program instructions are carried out.

SOLUTION

Errors that occur during the execution of a program are run-time errors. These are harder to detect errors. Some run-time errors stop the execution of the program which is then called "program crashed" or "abnormally aborted".
The instructions in a program may contain illegal operations like -
· Division by zero 
· Finding square root of a negative number
· Attempting to read from a file that does not exist
· Attempt to write on a read only file
· The program is terminated abnormally when an instruction prompts the system for an illegal operation

Run time errors can be avoided by making the program code take care of unusual events which normally should not occur. For e.g., put a check on that an integer is not being divided by zero. Denominator should not be zero. In such a case, the program should exit with an appropriate message.

SOLUTION

Error is called a 'bug' and correcting errors is referred to as debugging. 
Errors are of the following types:-
i) Compile-time errors 
    a) Syntax errors
    b) Semantic errors
ii) Run time errors 
iii) Logical errors 
iv) Linker errors 

Syntax errors : refer to formal rules governing the construction of valid statements in a language.   
Semantics errors : occur when statements are not meaningful. 
Run-Time errors : occur during execution of a programme. 
Logical errors  : are not encountered during compile time and run time These errors give incorrect result. 
Linker errors  : After compilation, the program may not link to the library for execution.

SOLUTION

The steps are as follows:-
1. Understand the problem well. 
2. Analyze the problem to 

     -- identify minimum number of inputs required for output.

     -- identify processing components.

3. Design the program by

     -- deciding step by step solution.
     -- breaking down solution into simple steps.

4. Code the program by
     -- identifying arithmetic and logical operations required for solutions.

     -- using appropriate control structures like conditional and looping control structure.

5. Test and Debug your program by
     -- finding errors in it.
     -- rectifying the errors.

6. Complete the documentation.

SOLUTION

As users are different, there is need for different user manuals. For e.g., the manager who supervises operations of the computer applications or receives its printed reports; the manager or end user may directly use an application through a computer terminal; clerk who prepares input for a computer and may even use its output. All these users interact with the same system in different ways.

The documentation for a specific user must ensure that proper understanding of user’s job and must provide all the necessary information to them. For different types of users, different manuals are prepared. However, the contents of the manuals are more or less similar. Additional information is provided wherever needed.

SOLUTION

OOP is useful in real business systems and other applications because it can simplify a complex problem.