SOLUTION

A base case refers to the statements that decide the termination of recursive call. For a function to calculate factorial of a number, the base case includes defining the factorial of 0 and 1 initially.

SOLUTION

Identifier 35abc is invalid as, it starts with a number. An identifier is a sequence of characters. _ and $ are legal identifiers in c++ but 0,1,2 are not.

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There are 5 fundamental data types in C++: char, int, float, double and void.

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C++ is a middle level language. It has features of a high-level language and low-level language.

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lvalue is a location value and is used to represent memory address.

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A reference variable is an alias name for a previously defined variable, in this same data object can be refered to by two names thus can be used as interchangeably.

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Pointer are difficult to understand by the programmes thus programmers rarely used pointers.

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C++ provides five fundamental data types : int, char, float, double and void.

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A reference variable is an alias name for a previously defined variable, in this same data object can be refered to by two names thus can be used as interchangeably.

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Modifiers are used to alter the meaning of the base type to fit various situations more precisely.

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Modifiers are used to alter the meaning of the base type and is placed befors these base types.

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signed integer is same as int i.e. -32768 to 32767  Unsigned integer is 0 to 65,535 i.e. just double of signed integer.

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Double data type occupies 8 bytes.

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The value of a constant is fixed during the program execution.

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The three ways in which a variable can be declared are: uninitialized variable, initialized variable, dynamic initialized.

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A pointer is a variable that holds a memory address. It is declared as int *a; Here a is pointer to int data type.

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A single byte can represent the whole range of 256 known characters The unsigned char represents the range 0 to 255 and signed char represents the range -128 to 127.

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Data type modifiers change the meaning of base type. There are four data type modifiers available: signed, unsigned, long, and short.These modifiers are used before data types. For example: signed int a;

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enumeration is used to name integer constants, using keyword enum. By default, enum values are assigned increasing from 0, 1, 2 ..... and so on.

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The location at which data value is stored is called rvalue. It is pronounced as "are-value"

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Letters,symbols etc are represented in the memory by number codes.

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double requires more storage space than a float (thus it is larger), also it will take lot of time to read the data (thus it is slower).

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In C++, a string of characters is stored in successive elements of a character array and is terminated by the NULL character. Therefore a character array is also known as character string.

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SOLUTION

A pointer declaration consist of base type, an *(asterisk), and a variable name. The general form of declaring a pointer variable is: type *ptr; Thus *a is pointer variable.

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Characters refer to letters, digits, symbols, nongraphic characters etc.

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Floating point numbers have fractional parts. The decimal point signals the floating point number. It can also be written in exponent notation.

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We use long(l or L) data types when large integers are to be used.

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The three floating-point types are: (1) float (2) double (3) long double

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Data type double holds twice as large memory with larger range and precision.

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Fundamental data types are those that are not composed of other data types. There are five fundamental data types ( int , char, float, double and void).

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A modifier is used to alter the meaning of the base type. A data type modifier that can be applied to integer base type is 'signed'. 

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‘void’ data type is used for empty set of values.

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We can view web pages using a web browser. A web browser is a WWW client that navigates through WWW and displays web pages.

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File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to copy a file from one host to another over a TCP/IP-based network.

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The seeds of Internet were planted in 1969, when US department of Defense sponsored a project named ARPANET.

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Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an access method for interacting with Internet. It is responsible for accessing hypertext documents on World Wide Web.

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The network was constructed in 1969, linking four nodes: University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara and University of Utah.

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Hyperlinks refer to a dynamic link upon clicking at which a new web page opens.

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Internet came into existence when US Department of Defense sponsored a project named APRANET in 1969.

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A location on Web server is called a Web site. It is a collection of related Web pages. The pages of a Website are usually accessed from a simple Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

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URL (Uniform resource locator) is an address of a file on Internet. It specifies where an identified resource is available and the mechanism for retrieving it.

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A Web browser is a computer program (also known as a software application) that knows how to communicate with a Web server on the Internet and request a Web page. It is also able to interpret the markup language in order to properly display a Web page on a computer screen.

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A machine asking for information from a server is a client. Machines can act as both clients and servers, depending on what action they're performing at the time.

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Web servers locate specific Web pages with Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, which are written out as a series of numbers.

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URLs specify the location of a resource in the Internet. We can type or paste a URL into the location window in the browser and then connect to it. The URL shows the type of item and its basic address and path.

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The World Wide Web is a global information medium that users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet.

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A URL is an address for a specific document found on the Web. It is made up of several components: a domain name, the directories and subdirectories of the site and the extension.

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URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is an address for a specific document found on the Web.

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A search engine is a program that searches for Web documents with keyword(s) we specify. Yahoo!, Google and AltaVista are just three examples of search engines that have been created to help you find information on the Web.

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Researchers for the Department of Defense developed what was then called ARPANET where APRA stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency, which allowed communication between university research computers. This network was designed so that it could function even if individual locations were destroyed by nuclear or military attack.

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A hyperlink refers to a dynamic link upon clicking at which a new web pages or words open.

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Each web site has a unique address called URL (Uniform Resource Locator), which identifies the location of file on server.

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The activity which is outside the scope of activities is called Ultra Vires activity.

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The internal rules and regulations are framed to carry the objects of the company as stated in the Memorandum of Association.

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A public company may adopt Table F which is a model set of articles given in the Companies Act. If a company adopts Table F, there is no need to prepare separate Articles of Association.

SOLUTION

Preliminary contracts are the contracts entered into by the promoters on behalf of the company before its incorporation. These are legally not binding upon the company even after it comes into existence. These are signed by promoters as these are made before the incorporation of the company.

SOLUTION

Incorporation of a company means the registration of company as a corporate body under the provisions of the Companies Act.A company comes into existence from the date of incorporation.

SOLUTION

The directors of the company subscribe the qualification shares as a person needs to purchase these shares to become the director of the company.

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A statement in lieu of prospectus is drafted in accordance with the particulars of the companies Act. It is filed with the Registrar. This is issued when the company has not issued prospectus to the public for inviting them to subscribe for shares.

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Entrepreneur Promoters are not promoters by occupation but they help in promotion and take part in the management of company after the incorporation.

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After allotment of shares, a Return of Allotment, signed by a director or secretary is filed with the registrar of companies within 30 days of allotment.

SOLUTION

Memorandum of association is the most important document of a company. It contains the fundamental on which a company is incorporated. It contains various clauses of the company such as object clause, liability clause, capital clause, etc.

SOLUTION

Provisional contracts are contracts signed after the incorporation but before commencement of business by a company.

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Promoters are the persons who conceive a business idea, decide to form a company, take decisions about size, type and structure, take preliminary steps for its formations and assume associated risk.

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Articles of Association.

SOLUTION

The application for approval of the name of the new company is made to the Registrar of Companies.

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Object clause.

SOLUTION

Memorandum of Association is known as the charter of the company.

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Prospectus is issued by a company to invite public to purchase its shares.

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The directors of the company subscribe to the qualification shares.

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Memorandum of Association specifies the objects of the company.

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A public company can commence business after obtaining the Certificate of Commencement of Business.

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A private company can commence business after obtaining Certificate of Incorporation.

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Two members are required to sign the Memorandum of Association of a private company.

SOLUTION

Seven members are required to sign the Memorandum of Association of a public limited Company.

SOLUTION

It is the most important clause of memorandum of association of a company. It defines the purpose for which the company is formed. It contains the main objects and other objectives which the company may pursue. It defines the scope and limitations of the company. A company is not legally entitled to undertake an activity, which is beyond the objectives stated in this clause. This clause is divided into two sub-clauses named main objects and other objects.

SOLUTION

A clause which defines the liability of the members of the company. In case of a company limited by shares, liability is limited to unpaid value of shares. In case of a company limited by guarantee liability is limited to the amount guaranteed by a member. In India companies are limited by shares only. Suppose a share of 10 is held by a member on which he has paid 9. In this case the liability of the member towards the company is limited to 1 only.

SOLUTION

Once it is decided to form a company, the promoters have to decide a name for it and submit an application for its approval to the Registrar of Companies of the state in which the registered office of the company is to be situated. The name so selected should not be undesirable and should not be similar to the name of an existing company or misleading. Three names have to given in the application. In case the proposed name is not acceptable, one of the alternative names may be approved.

SOLUTION

A project may be technically and financially beasible but it may not be profitable at the same time. Profitability of a project is called economical feasibility. If some project is not economically feasible the idea may have to be abondoned. Promoters usually take the help of experts to conduct these studies. It may be noted that these experts do not become promoters just because they are assisting the promoters in these studies.

SOLUTION

Incorporation of a company means the registration of company as a corporate body under the provisions of Companies Act. A company comes into existence from the date of incorporation. After completing formalities, promoters make an application for the incorporation of the company. When the registrar is satisfied about the completion of formalities for registration, a certificate of incorporation is issued to the company, which signify the birth of the company.

SOLUTION

Prospectus is any document that invites deposits or offers from public for the subscription or purchase of any shares or debentures of a body corporate. It is an invitation to the general public to apply for shares or debentures of the company or to make deposits in the company. Since the investors decide to invest in a company on the basis of information contained in the prospectus, there should not be any mis-statement, rather all important information should be disclosed.

SOLUTION

Certificate of Incorporation is the conclusive evidence of the legal existence of the company. A company is legally born on the date printed on the Certificate of Incorporation. It becomes a separate legal entity with perpetual succession on such date. A private company can start its business after receiving certificate of incorporation and does not need certificate for commencement of business.

SOLUTION

A promoter is the person who does the required work before the formation of the company for its incorporation. A promoter plans and organises the business and fulfills all the legal formalities so that new company can come into existence. It may be an individual, a group of individuals or a company.

SOLUTION

It is the foundation of a business. It contains the powers and objectives of the company. It is constitution of a company which relates with the outside world. No company is allowed to tamper with its contents without the sanction of Central Government or court of law. Any act of the company outside the scope of activities as laid down in the memorandum is said to be ultra vires and non binding on it.

SOLUTION

Promoters are entrusted with the responsibility to get the company registered and get it to the position of commencement of business. They are neither the agent nor the trustees of the company as it is yet to be incorporated. They stand in a fiduciary relationship with the company which is based on trust and faith. They must surrender and disclose any secret profit made during the promotion of the company. They are personally liable for all the contracts entered by them before the incorporation of the company.

SOLUTION

If capital of a company has been raised by issue of shares, a company applies to the registrar of companies for the issue of certificate of commencement of business. Follwing documents are needed to submit:

1. A declaration that shares have been subscribed by the public and allotted upto minimum subscription amount mentioned in the prospectus;

2. A declaration that every director has paid the application and allotment money on his shares in cash in the same proportion as others;

3. A declaration that no money is liable to become payable to the applicants because of the failure of the company to either apply for or obtain permission to deal in its securities on a stock exchange; and

4. A statutory declaration that the above requirements have been complied with. This declaration can be signed by a director or secretary of the company.

SOLUTION

Certificate of Incorporation is the conclusive evidence of the legal existence of the company. A company is born on the date mentioned on Certificate. It becomes a separate legal entity on such date. It can enter into contract with any party.

On the other hand, the Certificate of Commencement of Business is conclusive evidence that a company is entitled to do business. The company can start its functioning after getting certificate of commencement.

SOLUTION

Preliminary contracts are signed with the third parties before the incorporation of the company. Provisional Contracts are signed after incorporation but before commencement of business.

SOLUTION

According to the  Companies Act, no allotment shall be made of any share capital of a company offered to the public for subscription, unless the amount stated in the prospectus as the minimum amount has been subscribed. This amount is known as “Minimum Subscription” According to SEBI guidelines minimum subscription has been fixed at 90% that should be received within 120 days from the date of issue. It has been done to prevent companies from commencing business with inadequate resources. Thus if applications received for the shares are for an amount less than 90% of the issue size, the allotment cannot be made and the application money received must be returned to the applicants within next 10 days.

SOLUTION

Articles of Association contains the rules & regulations for the internal management of the company. These rules and regulations are framed to carry the objects of the company as stated in the memorandum of association. Articles of association contains the matters related to issue of shares, forfeiture of shares, meetings & maintenance of books. The articles are subordinate to Memorandum and hence, should not contradict anything stated in the memorandum.

SOLUTION

According to the Companies act “A prospectus may be defined as a document that invites deposits or offers from public for the subscription or purchase of any shares or debenture of a body corporate”. The contents of a prospectus should be such that prospective investors can evaluate a company. A prospectus is any document described or issued as a prospectus including any notice, circular, advertisement or other document inviting deposits from the public or inviting offers from the public for the subscription or purchase of any shares or debentures of, a body corporate. It is necessary for a public company to issue prospectus to raise money form public. However, a private company can raise funds by filing a Statement in Lieu a Prospectus.

Usually the following are contents of prospects:

• Company’s name and the address of its registered office.
• The main object of the company.
• The number and classes of the shares and the nature of the interest of the shareholders in the property and profits of the company.
• The details of redeemable preference shares to be issued, the date and mode of redemption.
• Qualification shares of the directors.

SOLUTION

To commence a public company following documents have to be filled with the registrar of the companies:

1. Memorandum of Association: It is the most important document of the company. It defines the objectives of the company for which the company is formed. No company can legally undertake activities that are not contained in its Memorandum of Association.
2. Articles of Association: It is the second important document of the company to be filed to registrar. It contains the rules regarding internal management of a company. All the rules stated in it are subsidiary to Memorandum of Association and hence should not contradict or exceed anything stated in the Memorandum of Association.
3. Consent of Proposed Directors: Along with the Memorandum of Association and the Articles of Association, a written consent of the proposed directors is also submitted to the registrar. In this consent each person named as a director is required confirming that he is agree to act in that company and is ready to buy qualification shares.
4. Agreement: If any agreement is made with any party or individual as agreement for appointment as Managing Director or a whole time Director or Manager, such agreements are also required to be submitted along with other important documents.
5. Statutory Declaration: It is the declaration stating that all the legal requirements have been done for getting the company registered under the act. This statement can be signed by an advocate of High Court or Supreme Court or by a Chartered Accountant in full time practice or by a person named in the articles as a director or manager or secretary of the company.

SOLUTION

A pointer can be reassigned any number of times, whereas a reference cannot be reassigned after initialisation. A pointer can point to null, whereas reference can never point to null.

SOLUTION

The five fundamental data types are as follows:

(1) int data type: Integers are whole numbers such as 5, 39 etc. They have no fractional parts. Integers are represented in C++ by int data type.

(2) char data type: Characters can store any number of the C++ basic character set. An identifier declared as char becomes a character variable.

(3) float data type: A number having a fractional part is called a floating point number. For example, 3.14 is a floating point number.

(4) double data type: The double data type is used for handling double precision floating-point numbers. 

(5) void data type: The void type specifies an empty set of values. It is used as the return type for functions that do not return a value.  

SOLUTION

#include< stdio.h>

#include< conio.h>

#include< iostream.h>

int main()

{

    clrscr();

    cout<< "Welcome to C++";

    getch();

    return 0;

SOLUTION

The program to find the area of a triangle:

#include< iostream.h>

#include< iomanip.h>

#include< math.h>

#include< conio.h>

void main()

{

float a, b, h;

cout<<"Please enter the base of the triangle";

cin>>b;

cout<<"Please enter the height of the triangle";

cin>>h;

a=0.5*(b*h);

cout<<"Area is"<< a;

getch();

}

SOLUTION

#include< iostream.h>

#include< stdio.h>

#include< conio.h>

void swap(int *d3, int *d4)

{

      int temp;

      temp=*d3;

      *d3=*d4;

      *d4=temp;

}

void main()

{

     int  c,d;

     clrscr();

     cout<<"Enter a number c: ";

     cin>>c;

     cout<<"Enter a number d: ";

     cin>>d;

     swap(&c,&d);

     cout<< "c contain" << c;

     cout<<"n d contain" << d;

     getch();

SOLUTION

Statutory declaration stating that all the legal requirements pertaining to registration have been complied with is submitted to the Registrar with other documents for getting the company registered under the law.

SOLUTION

The process of forming a public company is done under four separate stages i.e. Promotion, Capital Subscription and Commencement of Business.